Belgium
Commercialisation of Energy Storage
Mar 2015
Publication
This report was created to ensure a deeper understanding of the role and commercial viability of energy storage in enabling increasing levels of intermittent renewable power generation. It was specifically written to inform thought leaders and decision-makers about the potential contribution of storage in order to integrate renewable energy sources (RES) and about the actions required to ensure that storage is allowed to compete with the other flexibility options on a level playing field.<br/>The share of RES in the European electric power generation mix is expected to grow considerably constituting a significant contribution to the European Commission’s challenging targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The share of RES production in electricity demand should reach about 36% by 2020 45-60% by 2030 and over 80% in 2050.<br/>In some scenarios up to 65% of EU power generation will be covered by solar photovoltaics (PV) as well as on- and offshore wind (variable renewable energy (VRE) sources) whose production is subject to both seasonal as well as hourly weather variability. This is a situation the power system has not coped with before. System flexibility needs which have historically been driven by variable demand patterns will increasingly be driven by supply variability as VRE penetration increases to very high levels (50% and more).<br/>Significant amounts of excess renewable energy (on the order of TWh) will start to emerge in countries across the EU with surpluses characterized by periods of high power output (GW) far in excess of demand. These periods will alternate with times when solar PV and wind are only generating at a fraction of their capacity and non-renewable generation capacity will be required.<br/>In addition the large intermittent power flows will put strain on the transmission and distribution network and make it more challenging to ensure that the electricity supply matches demand at all times.<br/>New systems and tools are required to ensure that this renewable energy is integrated into the power system effectively. There are four main options for providing the required flexibility to the power system: dispatchable generation transmission and distribution expansion demand side management and energy storage. All of these options have limitations and costs and none of them can solve the RES integration challenge alone. This report focuses on the question to what extent current and new storage technologies can contribute to integrate renewables in the long run and play additional roles in the short term.
Study on Hydrogen from Renewable Resources in the EU
Feb 2016
Publication
Hydrogen can be produced from a broad range of renewable energy sources acting as a unique energy hub providing low or zero emission energy to all energy consuming sectors. Technically and efficiently producing hydrogen from renewable sources is a key enabler for these developments.<br/>Traditionally hydrogen has been produced from fossil sources by steam methane reforming of natural gas. At present the technology of choice to produce renewable ‘green’ hydrogen is water electrolysis using renewable electricity. The FCH JU has been supporting research and development of electrolyser technology and application projects aiming to increase the energy efficiency of electrolytic hydrogen production from renewable sources and to reduce costs.<br/>This study complements these activities by focusing on renewable hydrogen generation other than electrolysis. In this report these alternative hydrogen generation technologies are described characterized by their technical capabilities maturity and economic performance and assessed for their future potential.<br/>A methodology has been devised to first identify and structure a set of relevant green hydrogen pathways (eleven pathways depicted in the figure below) analyse them at a level of detail allowing a selection of those technologies which fit into and promise early commercialization in the framework of FCH 2 JU’s funding program.<br/>These originally proposed eleven pathways use solar thermal energy sunlight or biomass as major energy input.
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen: Joint Undertaking Programme Review 2019 Final Report
Nov 2020
Publication
The 2019 Programme Review Report presents the findings of a review into activities supported by the FCH 2 JU under the EU’s Seventh Framework Programme and Horizon 2020 by the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC ). It pays particular attention to the added value effectiveness and techno-economic efficiency of FCH 2 JU projects assigned to six review panels under two main pillars:<br/>Transport and Energy (TRANSPORT: a.trials and deployment of fuel cell applications and b.the next generation of products) (ENERGY: a.trials and deployment of fuel cell applications b.next generation of products and c.hydrogen for sectoral integration)<br/>Support for market uptake (cross-cutting activities such as standards and consumer awareness)<br/>This report covers all 81 projects that were ongoing for any time between April and October 2018 and assesses the strengths and accomplishments of each panel and areas that would benefit from further attention.
A Perspective on Hydrogen Investment, Deployment and Cost Competitiveness
Feb 2021
Publication
Deployment and investments in hydrogen have accelerated rapidly in response to government commitments to deep decarbonisation establishing hydrogen as a key component in the energy transition.
To help guide regulators decision-makers and investors the Hydrogen Council collaborated with McKinsey & Company to release the report ‘Hydrogen Insights 2021: A Perspective on Hydrogen Investment Deployment and Cost Competitiveness’. The report offers a comprehensive perspective on market deployment around the world investment momentum as well as implications on cost competitiveness of hydrogen solutions.
The document can be downloaded from their website
To help guide regulators decision-makers and investors the Hydrogen Council collaborated with McKinsey & Company to release the report ‘Hydrogen Insights 2021: A Perspective on Hydrogen Investment Deployment and Cost Competitiveness’. The report offers a comprehensive perspective on market deployment around the world investment momentum as well as implications on cost competitiveness of hydrogen solutions.
The document can be downloaded from their website
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen: Joint Undertaking Programme Review 2012 Final Report
Mar 2013
Publication
Initiated in 2011 the 2012 programme review edition covered 71‘live’ projects from the 2008 2009 and 2010 calls for proposals together with some projects from the 2011 call. Total funding for these projects stands at close to € 450 million 50% of which comes from FCH JU financial contributions and 50% of which comes from industry and research in-kind contributions.
Evaluation of Blistered and Cold Deformed ULC Steel with Melt Extraction and Thermal Desorption Spectroscopy
Dec 2019
Publication
Hydrogen characterization techniques like melt extraction and thermal desorption spectroscopy (TDS) are useful tools in order to evaluate and understand the interaction between hydrogen and metals. These two techniques are used here on cold deformed ultra-low carbon (ULC) steel with and without hydrogen induced damage. The material is charged electrochemically in order to induce varying amounts of hydrogen and variable degrees of hydrogen induced damage. The aim of this work is to evaluate to which extent the hydrogen induced damage would manifest itself in melt extraction and TDS measurements.
Hydrogen Europe Podcast: Hydrogen, The First Element: Why Renewable Hydrogen? Why Now?
Mar 2022
Publication
In the first episode of Hydrogen Europe's podcast "Hydrogen the first element" our CEO Jorgo Chatzimarkakis discusses with NEL's CEO and President of Hydrogen Europe Jon Andre Løkke. Starting off on how Jon joined the hydrogen sector the two CEOs investigate the historical moment renewable hydrogen is currently living.
Study on Early Business Cases for H2 In Energy Storage and More Broadly Power to H2 Applications
Jun 2017
Publication
Hydrogen is widely recognised as a promising option for storing large quantities of renewable electricity over longer periods. For that reason in an energy future where renewables are a dominant power source opportunities for Power to- Hydrogen in the long-term appear to be generally acknowledged. The key challenge today is to identify concrete short-term investment opportunities based on sound economics and robust business cases. The focus of this study is to identify these early business cases and to assess their potential replicability within the EU from now until 2025. An essential part and innovative approach of this study is the detailed analysis of the power sector including its transmission grid constraints.
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen: Joint Undertaking Programme Review 2015 Final Report
Apr 2016
Publication
The 2015 Programme Review Report refers to the fifth review of the FCH JU project portfolio and covers 100 projects funded through annual calls for proposals from 2009 to 2013.<br/>The reviews began in 2011 following a recommendation arising from the interim evaluation of the FCH JU which identified the need to ensure that the overall project portfolio fulfilled the objectives of the FCH JU Multi-Annual Implementation and Work Plans.
Debunking the Myths of Hydrogen Production and Water Consumption
Dec 2020
Publication
In our factsheet where we debunk 3 myths around hydrogen production and water consumption: electrolysis uses vast amounts of water; electrolysis uses freshwater resources only and electrolysis is bound to create water stress in water-scarce regions.
The Role of Electrofuels under Uncertainties for the Belgian Energy Transition
Jul 2021
Publication
Wind and solar energies present a time and space disparity that generally leads to a mismatch between the demand and the supply. To harvest their maximum potentials one of the main challenges is the storage and transport of these energies. This challenge can be tackled by electrofuels such as hydrogen methane and methanol. They offer three main advantages: compatibility with existing distribution networks or technologies of conversion economical storage solution for high capacity and ability to couple sectors (i.e. electricity to transport to heat or to industry). However the level of contribution of electric-energy carriers is unknown. To assess their role in the future we used whole-energy system modelling (EnergyScope Typical Days) to study the case of Belgium in 2050. This model is multi-energy and multi-sector. It optimises the design of the overall system to minimise its costs and emissions. Such a model relies on many parameters (e.g. price of natural gas efficiency of heat pump) to represent as closely as possible the future energy system. However these parameters can be highly uncertain especially for long-term planning. Consequently this work uses the polynomial chaos expansion method to integrate a global sensitivity analysis in order to highlight the influence of the parameters on the total cost of the system. The outcome of this analysis points out that compared to the deterministic cost-optimum situation the system cost accounting for uncertainties becomes higher (+17%) and twice more uncertain at carbon neutrality and that electrofuels are a major contribution to the uncertainty (up to 53% in the variation of the costs) due to their importance in the energy system and their high uncertainties their higher price and uncertainty.
A Review of Fuel Cell Powertrains for Long-Haul Heavy-Duty Vehicles: Technology, Hydrogen, Energy and Thermal Management Solutions
Dec 2022
Publication
Long-haul heavy-duty vehicles including trucks and coaches contribute to a substantial portion of the modern-day European carbon footprint and pose a major challenge in emissions reduction due to their energy-intensive usage. Depending on the hydrogen fuel source the use of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) for long-haul applications has shown significant potential in reducing road freight CO2 emissions until the possible maturity of future long-distance battery-electric mobility. Fuel cell heavy-duty (HD) propulsion presents some specific characteristics advantages and operating constraints along with the notable possibility of gains in powertrain efficiency and usability through improved system design and intelligent onboard energy and thermal management. This paper provides an overview of the FCEV powertrain topology suited for long-haul HD applications their operating limitations cooling requirements waste heat recovery techniques state-of-the-art in powertrain control energy and thermal management strategies and over-the-air route data based predictive powertrain management including V2X connectivity. A case study simulation analysis of an HD 40-tonne FCEV truck is also presented focusing on the comparison of powertrain losses and energy expenditures in different subsystems while running on VECTO Regional delivery and Long-haul cycles. The importance of hydrogen fuel production pathways onboard storage approaches refuelling and safety standards and fleet management is also discussed. Through a comprehensive review of the H2 fuel cell powertrain technology intelligent energy management thermal management requirements and strategies and challenges in hydrogen production storage and refuelling this article aims at helping stakeholders in the promotion and integration of H2 FCEV technology towards road freight decarbonisation.
Powering a climate-neutral economy: An EU Strategy for Energy System Integration
Jul 2020
Publication
To become climate-neutral by 2050 Europe needs to transform its energy system which accounts for 75% of the EU's greenhouse gas emissions. The EU strategies for energy system integration and hydrogen adopted today will pave the way towards a more efficient and interconnected energy sector driven by the twin goals of a cleaner planet and a stronger economy.<br/><br/>The two strategies present a new clean energy investment agenda in line with the Commission's Next Generation EU recovery package and the European Green Deal. The planned investments have the potential to stimulate the economic recovery from the coronavirus crisis. They create European jobs and boost our leadership and competitiveness in strategic industries which are crucial to Europe's resilience.
Validation of Selected Optical Methods for Assessing Polyethylene (PE) Liners Used in High Pressure Vessels for Hydrogen Storage
Jun 2021
Publication
A polyethylene (PE) liner is the basic element in high-pressure type 4 composite vessels designed for hydrogen or compressed natural gas (CNG) storage systems. Liner defects may result in the elimination of the whole vessel from use which is very expensive both at the manufacturing and exploitation stage. The goal is therefore the development of efficient non-destructive testing (NDT) methods to test a liner immediately after its manufacturing before applying a composite reinforcement. It should be noted that the current regulations codes and standards (RC&S) do not specify liner testing methods after manufacturing. It was considered especially important to find a way of locating and assessing the size of air bubbles and inclusions and the field of deformations in liner walls. It was also expected that these methods would be easily applicable to mass-produced liners. The paper proposes the use of three optical methods namely visual inspection digital image correlation (DIC) and optical fiber sensing based on Bragg gratings (FBG). Deformation measurements are validated with finite element analysis (FEA). The tested object was a prototype of a hydrogen liner for high-pressure storage (700 bar). The mentioned optical methods were used to identify defects and measure deformations.
Hydrogen Roadmap Europe: A Sustainable Pathway for the European Energy Transition
Feb 2019
Publication
Hydrogen is an essential element in the energy transition and can account for 24% of final energy demand and 5.4m jobs by 2050 says the new study by the FCH JU “Hydrogen Roadmap Europe: A sustainable pathway for the European Energy Transition“. Developed with input from 17 leading European industrial actors the study lays out a pathway for the large-scale deployment of hydrogen and fuel cells until 2050 and quantifies the associated socio-economic impacts.<br/>The report makes the case that hydrogen is required to address the challenges ahead. At scale decarbonisation of key segments such as the gas grid transport (particularly as relates to heavy duty vehicles) industrial processes that use high-grade heat and hydrogen as chemical feedstock require the use of hydrogen in large quantities.<br/>In addition the electrification of the economy and the large scale integration of intermittent renewable energy sources require large scale energy storage enabling seasonal storage and the efficient transport of clean energy across regions at low cost. Hydrogen is the only at scale technology capable of addressing all of these challenges.<br/>Importantly there will be important socio-economic and environmental benefits associated with this deployment such as an EUR 820B per year market and a total of 560Mt CO2 abated. The report lays out a roadmap for the ramp-up of market deployment across applications setting specific milestones between now and 2050. It also calls for a coordinated approach from policy makers industry and investors in order to achieve the 2-degree scenario.
Alloy Optimization for Reducing Delayed Fracture Sensitivity of 2000 MPa Press Hardening Steel
Jun 2020
Publication
Press hardening steel (PHS) is widely applied in current automotive body design. The trend of using PHS grades with strengths above 1500 MPa raises concerns about sensitivity to hydrogen embrittlement. This study investigates the hydrogen delayed fracture sensitivity of steel alloy 32MnB5 with a 2000 MPa tensile strength and that of several alloy variants involving molybdenum and niobium. It is shown that the delayed cracking resistance can be largely enhanced by using a combination of these alloying elements. The observed improvement appears to mainly originate from the obstruction of hydrogen-induced damage incubation mechanisms by the solutes as well as the precipitates of these alloying elements.
Internal and Surface Damage after Electrochemical Hydrogen Charging for Ultra Low Carbon Steel with Various Degrees of Recrystallization
Jul 2016
Publication
An ultra low carbon (ULC) steel was subjected to electrochemical hydrogen charging to provoke hydrogen induced damage in the material. The damage characteristics were analyzed for recrystallized partially recrystallized and cold deformed material. The goal of the study is to understand the effect of cold deformation on the hydrogen induced cracking behavior of a material which is subjected to cathodic hydrogen charging. Additionally charging conditions i.e. charging time and current density were varied in order to identify correlations between on the one hand crack initiation and propagation and on the other hand the charging conditions. The obtained hydrogen induced cracks were studied by optical microscopy scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Hydrogen induced cracks were observed to propagate transgranularly independently of the state of the material. Deformed samples were considerably more sensitive to hydrogen induced cracking which implies the important role of dislocations in hydrogen induced damage mechanisms.
A Portfolio of Power-Trains for Europe- A Fact Based Analysis
Nov 2010
Publication
This report is prepared by thirty of the largest global car manufacturers oil and gas companies utilities equipment manufacturers NGOs governmental and clean energy organisations with the collaboration of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking.<br/>The analysis compares the economics sustainability and performance of the vehicles and infrastructures needed to reach the 80% decarbonisation goal set by the<br/>European Union and is an unprecedented effort from industry and other stakeholders to analyse the role of the various new car-types in meeting this objective on the basis of proprietary industrial data.
Efficient Hydrogen Storage in Defective Graphene and its Mechanical Stability: A Combined Density Functional Theory and Molecular Dynamics Simulation Study
Dec 2020
Publication
A combined density functional theory and molecular dynamics approach is employed to study modifications of graphene at atomistic level for better H2 storage. The study reveals H2 desorption from hydrogenated defective graphene structure V222 to be exothermic. H2 adsorption and desorption processes are found to be more reversible for V222 as compared to pristine graphene. Our study shows that V222 undergoes brittle fracture under tensile loading similar to the case of pristine graphene. The tensile strength of V222 shows slight reduction with respect to their pristine counterpart which is attributed to the transition of sp2 to sp3-like hybridization. The study also shows that the V222 structure is mechanically more stable than the defective graphene structure without chemically adsorbed hydrogen atoms. The current fundamental study thus reveals the efficient recovery mechanism of adsorbed hydrogen from V222 and paves the way for the engineering of structural defects in graphene for H2 storage.
Integration of Chemical Looping Combustion for Cost-effective CO2 Capture from State-of-the-art Natural Gas Combined Cycles
May 2020
Publication
Chemical looping combustion (CLC) is a promising method for power production with integrated CO2 capture with almost no direct energy penalty. When integrated into a natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) plant however CLC imposes a large indirect energy penalty because the maximum achievable reactor temperature is far below the firing temperature of state-of-the-art gas turbines. This study presents a techno-economic assessment of a CLC plant that circumvents this limitation via an added combustor after the CLC reactors. Without the added combustor the energy penalty amounts to 11.4%-points causing a high CO2 avoidance cost of $117.3/ton which is more expensive than a conventional NGCC plant with post-combustion capture ($93.8/ton) with an energy penalty of 8.1%-points. This conventional CLC plant would also require a custom gas turbine. With an added combustor fired by natural gas a standard gas turbine can be deployed and CO2 avoidance costs are reduced to $60.3/ton mainly due to a reduction in the energy penalty to only 1.4%-points. However due to the added natural gas combustion after the CLC reactor CO2 avoidance is only 52.4%. Achieving high CO2 avoidance requires firing with clean hydrogen instead increasing the CO2 avoidance cost to $96.3/ton when a hydrogen cost of $15.5/GJ is assumed. Advanced heat integration could reduce the CO2 avoidance cost to $90.3/ton by lowering the energy penalty to only 0.6%-points. An attractive alternative is therefore to construct the plant for added firing with natural gas and retrofit the added combustor for hydrogen firing when CO2 prices reach very high levels.
Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Wind-based Hydrogen Production in the Netherlands Using Ex-ante LCA and Scenarios Analysis
Mar 2021
Publication
Two electrolysis technologies fed with renewable energy sources are promising for the production of CO2-free hydrogen and enabling the transition to a hydrogen society: Alkaline Electrolyte (AE) and Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM). However limited information exists on the potential environmental impacts of these promising sustainable innovations when operating on a large-scale. To fill this gap the performance of AE and PEM systems is compared using ex-ante Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) technology analysis and exploratory scenarios for which a refined methodology has been developed to study the effects of implementing large-scale sustainable hydrogen production systems. Ex-ante LCA allows modelling the environmental impacts of hydrogen production exploratory scenario analysis allows modelling possible upscaling effects at potential future states of hydrogen production and use in vehicles in the Netherlands in 2050. A bridging tool for mapping the technological field has been created enabling the combination of quantitative LCAs with qualitative scenarios. This tool also enables diversity for exploring multiple sets of visions. The main results from the paper show with an exception for the “ozone depletion” impact category (1) that large-scale AE and PEM systems have similar environmental impacts with variations lower than 7% in all impact categories (2) that the contribution of the electrolyser is limited to 10% of all impact categories results and (3) that the origin of the electricity is the largest contributor to the environmental impact contributing to more than 90% in all impact categories even when renewable energy sources are used. It is concluded that the methodology was applied successfully and provides a solid basis for an ex-ante assessment framework that can be applied to emerging technological systems.
Hydrogen Refuelling Stations in the Netherlands: An Intercomparison of Quantitative Risk Assessments Used for Permitting
May 2018
Publication
As of 2003 15 hydrogen refuelling stations (HRSs) have been deployed in the Netherlands. To become established the HRS has to go through a permitting procedure. An important document of the permitting dossier is the quantitative risk assessment (QRA) as it assesses the risks of the HRS associated to people and buildings in the vicinity of the HRS. In the Netherlands a generic prescribed approach exists on how to perform a QRA however specific guidelines for HRSs do not exist. An intercomparison among the QRAs of permitted HRSs has revealed significant inconsistencies on various aspects of the QRA: namely the inclusion of HRS sub-systems and components the HRS sub-system and component considerations as predefined components the application of failure scenarios the determination of failure frequencies the application of input parameters the consideration of preventive and mitigation measures as well as information provided regarding the HRS surroundings and the societal risk. It is therefore recommended to develop specific QRA guidelines for HRSs.
A Roadmap for Financing Hydrogen Refueling Networks – Creating Prerequisites for H2-based Mobility
Sep 2014
Publication
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are zero tailpipe emission vehicles. Their large-scale deployment is expected to play a major role in the de-carbonization of transportation in the European Union (EU) and is therefore an important policy element at EU and Member State level.<br/>For FCEVs to be introduced to the market a network of hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) first has to exist. From a technological point of view FCEVs are ready for serial production already: Hyundaiand Toyota plan to introduce FCEVs into key markets from 2015 and Daimler Ford and Nissan plan to launch mass-market FCEVs in 2017.<br/>At the moment raising funds for building the hydrogen refuelling infrastructure appears to be challenging.<br/>This study explores options for financing the HRS rollout which facilitate the involvement of private lenders and investors. It presents a number of different financing options involving public-sector bank loans funding from private-sector strategic equity investors commercial bank loans private equity and funding from infrastructure investors. The options outline the various requirements forn accessing these sources of funding with regard to project structure incentives and risk mitigation. The financing options were developed on the basis of discussions with stakeholders in the HRS rollout from industry and with financiers.<br/>This study was prepared by Roland Berger in close contact with European Investment banks and a series of private banks.<br/>This study explores in details the business cases for HRS in Germany and UK. The conclusion can be easily extrapolate to other countries.
A Hydrogen Strategy for a Climate-neutral Europe
Jul 2020
Publication
In an integrated energy system hydrogen can support the decarbonisation of industry transport power generation and buildings across Europe. The EU Hydrogen Strategy addresses how to transform this potential into reality through investments regulation market creation and research and innovation.
Hydrogen can power sectors that are not suitable for electrification and provide storage to balance variable renewable energy flows but this can only be achieved with coordinated action between the public and private sector at EU level. The priority is to develop renewable hydrogen produced using mainly wind and solar energy. However in the short and medium term other forms of low-carbon hydrogen are needed to rapidly reduce emissions and support the development of a viable market.
This gradual transition will require a phased approach:
Hydrogen can power sectors that are not suitable for electrification and provide storage to balance variable renewable energy flows but this can only be achieved with coordinated action between the public and private sector at EU level. The priority is to develop renewable hydrogen produced using mainly wind and solar energy. However in the short and medium term other forms of low-carbon hydrogen are needed to rapidly reduce emissions and support the development of a viable market.
This gradual transition will require a phased approach:
- From 2020 to 2024 we will support the installation of at least 6 gigawatts of renewable hydrogen electrolysers in the EU and the production of up to one million tonnes of renewable hydrogen.
- From 2025 to 2030 hydrogen needs to become an intrinsic part of our integrated energy system with at least 40 gigawatts of renewable hydrogen electrolysers and the production of up to ten million tonnes of renewable hydrogen in the EU.
- From 2030 to 2050 renewable hydrogen technologies should reach maturity and be deployed at large scale across all hard-to-decarbonise sectors.
- To help deliver on this Strategy the Commission is launched the European Clean Hydrogen Alliance with industry leaders civil society national and regional ministers and the European Investment Bank. The Alliance will build up an investment pipeline for scaled-up production and will support demand for clean hydrogen in the EU.
Study on the Use of Fuel Cells and Hydrogen in the Railway Environment
Jun 2019
Publication
This study outlines a pathway for commercialisation of stationary fuel cells in distributed generation across Europe. It has been sponsored by the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) a public-private partnership between the European Commission the fuel cell and hydrogen industry and a number of research bodies and associations. The FCH JU supports research technology development and demonstration activities in the field of fuel cell and hydrogen technologies in Europe. The study explores how stationary fuel cells can benefit users how they can be brought to the market what hurdles still exist and how their diffusion may foster Europe's transition into a new energy age.
FCH JU – Key to Sustainable Energy and Transport
Jan 2019
Publication
This brochure offers an overview of the main applications of fuel cell and hydrogen technologies and how they work and provides insights into our programme and our accomplishments.
Fuel Cell Electric Buses: Potential for Sustainable Public Transport in Europe
Oct 2015
Publication
This report provides an outlook for jointly achieving a commercialisation pathway.<br/>Building on the findings of the 2012 FCH JU technology study on alternative powertrains for urban buses this report provides an assessment of the commercialisation pathway from an operational perspective. It reflects the actual situation in which operators deploy large scale demonstration projects in the next years from a rather conservative angle and argues why it makes sense to deploy FC buses now. The insights are based on first-hand data and assessments of the coalition members from the hydrogen and fuel cell industry as well as local governments and public transport operators in Europe.
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen: Joint Undertaking Programme Review 2016 Final Report
Jun 2017
Publication
The Fuel Cell and Hydrogen 2 Joint Undertaking (FCH 2 JU) organised the sixth edition of its Programme Review Days (PRD). 100 projects allocated in 6 panels covering cross-cutting energy and transport in research and demonstration activities have been the basis of the FCH JU's annual review of its research and innovation programme.
Urban Buses: Alternative Powertrains for Europe: A Fact-based Analysis of the Role of Diesel Hybrid, Hydrogen Fuel Cell, Trolley and Battery Electric Powertrains
Dec 2012
Publication
A coalition of 40 industrial companies and government organizations financially supported by the FCH JU elaborated a technology neutral and fact-based comparative study on eight different powertrain technologies for urban buses in Europe from 2012 to 2030.<br/>According to the results of the study only fully electric powertrain buses (based on hydrogen batteries or trolley system) have the potential to achieve zero local emissions by drastically reducing well-to-wheel emissions.<br/>Following the positive comparative result for fuel cell hydrogen urban buses the FCH JU will launch a follow-up study that more specifically defines real uptake scenarios for market entry scheduled to starting before summer 2013.
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen: Joint Undertaking Programme Review 2011 Final Report
Apr 2012
Publication
The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) has the ambitious objective to place Europe at the forefront of the development commercialization and deployment of fuel cells and hydrogen technologies as of 2015. About €470 million over a six year period have been granted by the European Union to achieve this and private funds are being attracted to support the same ambition as part of the global European effort embedded in the multi-annual implementation plan MAIP (2008-2013).
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Technologies in Europe: Financial and Technology Outlook on the European Sector Ambition 2014-2020
Nov 2011
Publication
Sustainable secure and competitive energy supply and transport services are at the heart of the EU2020 strategy towards a low carbon and inclusive economy geared towards a reduction of 80% of CO2 emissions by 2050. This objective has been endorsed by the European Institutions and Member States. It is widely recognised that a technological shift and the deployment of new clean technologies are critical for a successful transition to such a new sustainable economy. Furthermore in addition to bringing a healthier environment and securing energy supply innovation will provide huge opportunities for the European economy. However this paradigm shift will not be purely driven by the market. A strong and determined commitment of public institutions and the private sector together are necessary to support the European political ambition. The period 2014-2020 will be critical to ensure that the necessary investments are realized to support the EU2020 vision. In terms of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies significant investments are required for (a) transportation for scaling up the car fleet and building up of refuelling infrastructure needs (b) hydrogen production technologies to integrate renewable intermittent power sources to the electrical grid (wind and solar) (c) stationary fuel cell applications with large demonstration projects in several European cities and (d) identified early markets (material handling vehicles back-up power systems) to allow for volume developments and decrease of system-costs.<br/>This Report summarizes the sector’s financial ambition to reach Europe’s objectives in 2020.
Hydrogen Safety Aspects Related to High Pressure - PEM Water Electrolysis
Sep 2007
Publication
Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) water electrolysis has demonstrated its potentialities in terms of cell efficiency (energy consumption ≈ 4.0-4.2 kW/Nm3 H2) and gas purity (> 99.99% H2). Current research activities are aimed at increasing operating pressure up to several hundred bars for direct storage of hydrogen in pressurized vessels. Compared to atmospheric pressure electrolysis high-pressure operation yields additional problems especially with regard to safety considerations. In particular the rate of gases (H2 and O2) cross-permeation across the membrane and their water solubility both increase with pressure. As a result gas purity is affected in both anodic and cathodic circuits and this can lead to the formation of explosive gas mixtures. To prevent such risks two different solutions reported in this communication have been investigated. First the chemical modification of the solid polymer electrolyte in order to reduce cross-permeation phenomena. Second the use of catalytic H2/O2 recombiners to maintain H2 levels in O2 and O2 levels in H2 at values compatible with safety requirements.
European Hydrogen Safety Training Platform for First Responders- Hyresponse Project
Sep 2013
Publication
The paper presents HyResponse project i.e. a European Hydrogen Safety Training Platform that targets to train First responders to acquire professional knowledge and skills to contribute to FCH permitting process as approving authority. The threefold training program is described: educational training operational-level training on mock-up real scale transport and hydrogen stationary installations and innovative virtual training exercises reproducing entire accident scenarios. The paper highlights how the three pilot sessions for European First Responders in a face to face mode will be organized to get a feedback on the training program. The expected outputs are also presented i.e. the Emergency Response Guide and a public website including teaching material and online interactive virtual training.
Challenges in the Use of Hydrogen for Maritime Applications
Jan 2021
Publication
Maritime shipping is a key factor that enables the global economy however the pressure it exerts on the environment is increasing rapidly. In order to reduce the emissions of harmful greenhouse gasses the search is on for alternative fuels for the maritime shipping industry. In this work the usefulness of hydrogen and hydrogen carriers is being investigated as a fuel for sea going ships. Due to the low volumetric energy density of hydrogen under standard conditions the need for efficient storage of this fuel is high. Key processes in the use of hydrogen are discussed starting with the production of hydrogen from fossil and renewable sources. The focus of this review is different storage methods and in this work we discuss the storage of hydrogen at high pressure in liquefied form at cryogenic temperatures and bound to liquid or solid-state carriers. In this work a theoretical introduction to different hydrogen storage methods precedes an analysis of the energy-efficiency and practical storage density of the carriers. In the final section the major challenges and hurdles for the development of hydrogen storage for the maritime industry are discussed. The most likely challenges will be the development of a new bunkering infrastructure and suitable monitoring of the safety to ensure safe operation of these hydrogen carriers on board the ship.
Trends in Investments, Jobs and Turnover in the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Sector
Mar 2013
Publication
The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) commissioned this report to a consultancy to get a better understanding of the past and future evolution of the European Fuel Cell and Hydrogen (FC&H) sector and the role that public support has in that evolution.
The results of this report are based on three data sources:
The results of this report are based on three data sources:
- Survey results: A survey was sent out to 458 companies that are liaised to the FCH JU. 154 people responded. (see list in annex)
- Desk research: A wide range of industry reports was consulted to supplement and cross check the results of the survey. However given the still nascent state of the industry the information gathered with this exercise was limited.
- Interviews: Key stakeholders in the European FC&H sector were interviewed to get the qualitative story behind the results from the survey and the desk research. These stakeholders varied from fuel cell manufacturers to government officials from energy companies to automotive OEMs
Comparison of Hydrogen and Battery Electric Trucks
Jul 2020
Publication
Only emissions-free vehicles which include battery electric (BEVs) and hydrogen fuel cell trucks (FCEVs) can provide for a credible long-term pathway towards the full decarbonisation of the road freight sector. This document lays out the methodology and assumptions which were used to calculate the total cost of ownership (TCO) of the two vehicle technologies for regional delivery and long-haul truck applications. It also discusses other criteria such as refuelling and recharging times as well as potential payload losses.
Link to Document Download on Transport & Environment website
Link to Document Download on Transport & Environment website
European Hydrogen Safety Panel (EHSP)
Sep 2019
Publication
Inaki Azkarate,
Marco Carcassi,
Francesco Dolci,
Alberto Garcia-Hombrados,
Stuart J. Hawksworth,
Thomas Jordan,
Georg W. Mair,
Daniele Melideo,
Vladimir V. Molkov,
Pietro Moretto,
Ernst Arndt Reinecke,
Pratap Sathiah,
Ulrich Schmidtchen,
Trygve Skjold,
Etienne Studer,
Tom Van Esbroeck,
Elena Vyazmina,
Jennifer Xiaoling Wen,
Jianjun Xiao and
Joachim Grüne
The FCH 2 JU launched the European Hydrogen Safety Panel (EHSP) initiative in 2017. The mission of the EHSP is to assist the FCH 2 JU both at programme and at project level in assuring that hydrogen safety is adequately managed and to promote and disseminate H2 safety culture within and outside of the FCH 2 JU programme. The EHSP is composed of a multidisciplinary pool of safety experts grouped in ad-hoc working groups (task forces) according to the tasks to be performed and to expertise. The scope and activities of the EHSP are structured around four main areas:
TF.1. Support at project level The EHSP task under this category includes the development of measures to avoid any accident by integrating safety learnings expertise and planning into FCH 2 JU funded projects and by ensuring that all projects address and incorporate the state-of-the-art in hydrogen safety appropriately. To this end a Safety guidance document for hydrogen and fuel cell projects will be produced.
TF.2. Support at programme level Activities under this category include answering questions related to hydrogen safety in an independent coordinated and consolidated way via hotline-support or if necessary via physical presence of safety representative at the FCH 2 JU. It could also include a short introduction to hydrogen safety and the provision of specific guidelines for the handling storage and use of hydrogen in the public domain. As a start a clear strategy on this should be developed and therefore related M ulti-annual work plan 2018-2020.
TF.3. Data collection and assessment The EHSP tasks include the analysis of existing events already introduced in the European Hydrogen Safety Reference Database (HIAD) and of new information from relevant mishaps incidents or accidents. The EHSP should therefore derive lessons learned and provide together with the involved parties further general recommendations to all stakeholders based on these data. For 2018 the following deliverables should be produced: methodology to collect inputs from projects and to provide lessons learned and guidelines assessment and lessons learned from HIAD and a report on research progress in the field of hydrogen safety.
TF.4. Public outreach Framed within the context of the intended broad information exchange the EHSP tasks under this category include the development of a regularly updated webpage hosted on the FCH 2 JU website.
Fire Tests Carried Out in FCH JU FIRECOMP Project, Recommendations and Application to Safety of Gas Storage Systems
Sep 2017
Publication
In the event of a fire composite pressure vessels behave very differently from metallic ones: the material is degraded potentially leading to a burst without significant pressure increase. Hence such objects are when necessary protected from fire by using thermally-activated devices (TPRD) and standards require testing cylinder and TPRD together. The pre-normative research project FireComp aimed at understanding better the conditions which may lead to burst through testing and simulation and proposed an alternative way of assessing the fire performance of composite cylinders. This approach is currently used by Air Liquide for the safety of composite bundles carrying large amounts of hydrogen gas.
The Hydrogen Trapping Ability of TiC and V4C3 by Thermal Desorption Spectroscopy and Permeation Experiments
Dec 2018
Publication
Hydrogen (H) presence in metals is detrimental as unpredictable failure might occur. Recent developments in material’s design indicated that microstructural features such as precipitates play an essential role in potentially increasing the resistance against H induced failure. This work evaluates the H trapping characteristics for TiC and V4C3 by thermal desorption spectroscopy and permeation experiments. Two microstructural conditions are compared: as quenched vs. quenched and tempered in which the carbides are introduced. The tempered induced precipitates are able to deeply trap a significant amount of H which decreases the H diffusivity in the materials and removes some of the detrimental H from the microstructure. For microstructural design purposes it is important to know the position of H. Here H is demonstrated to be trapped at the carbide/matrix interface by modifying the tempering treatment.
The Effect of Cold Rolling on the Hydrogen Susceptibility of 5083 Aluminium Alloy
Oct 2017
Publication
This work focuses in investigating the effect of cold deformation on the cathodic hydrogen charging of 5083 aluminum alloy. The aluminium alloy was submitted to a cold rolling process until the average thickness of the specimens was reduced by 7% and 15% respectively. A study of the structure microhardness and tensile properties of the hydrogen charged aluminium specimens with and without cold rolling indicated that the cold deformation process led to an increase of hydrogen susceptibility of this aluminum alloy.
Production of H2-rich Syngas from Excavated Landfill Waste through Steam Co-gasification with Biochar
Jun 2020
Publication
Gasification of excavated landfill waste is one of the promising options to improve the added-value chain during remediation of problematic old landfill sites. Steam gasification is considered as a favorable route to convert landfill waste into H2-rich syngas. Co-gasification of such a poor quality landfill waste with biochar or biomass would be beneficial to enhance the H2 concentration in the syngas as well as to improve the gasification performance. In this work steam co-gasification of landfill waste with biochar or biomass was carried out in a lab-scale reactor. The effect of the fuel blending ratio was investigated by varying the auxiliary fuel content in the range of 15e35 wt%. Moreover co-gasification tests were carried out at temperatures between 800 and 1000°C. The results indicate that adding either biomass or biochar enhances the H2 yield where the latter accounts for the syngas with the highest H2 concentration. At 800°C the addition of 35 wt% biochar can enhance the H2 concentration from 38 to 54 vol% and lowering the tar yield from 0.050 to 0.014 g/g-fuel-daf. No apparent synergetic effect was observed in the case of biomass co-gasification which might cause by the high Si content of landfill waste. In contrast the H2 production increases non-linearly with the biochar share in the fuel which indicates that a significant synergetic effect occurs during co-gasification due to the reforming of tar over biochar. Increasing the temperature of biochar co-gasification from 800 to 1000°C elevates the H2 concentration but decreases the H2/CO ratio and increases the tar yield. Furthermore the addition of biochar also enhances the gasification efficiency as indicated by increased values of the energy yield ratio.
Property Optimization in As-Quenched Martensitic Steel by Molybdenum and Niobium Alloying
Apr 2018
Publication
Niobium microalloying is the backbone of modern low-carbon high strength low alloy (HSLA) steel metallurgy providing a favorable combination of strength and toughness by pronounced microstructural refinement. Molybdenum alloying is established in medium-carbon quenching and tempering of steel by delivering high hardenability and good tempering resistance. Recent developments of ultra-high strength steel grades such as fully martensitic steel can be optimized by using beneficial metallurgical effects of niobium and molybdenum. The paper details the metallurgical principles of both elements in such steel and the achievable improvement of properties. Particularly the underlying mechanisms of improving toughness and reducing the sensitivity towards hydrogen embrittlement by a suitable combination of molybdenum and niobium alloying will be discussed.
Acorn: Developing Full-chain Industrial Carbon Capture and Storage in a Resource- and Infrastructure-rich Hydrocarbon Province
Jun 2019
Publication
Juan Alcalde,
Niklas Heinemann,
Leslie Mabon,
Richard H. Worden,
Heleen de Coninck,
Hazel Robertson,
Marko Maver,
Saeed Ghanbari,
Floris Swennenhuis,
Indira Mann,
Tiana Walker,
Sam Gomersal,
Clare E. Bond,
Michael J. Allen,
Stuart Haszeldine,
Alan James,
Eric J. Mackay,
Peter A. Brownsort,
Daniel R. Faulkner and
Steve Murphy
Research to date has identified cost and lack of support from stakeholders as two key barriers to the development of a carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) industry that is capable of effectively mitigating climate change. This paper responds to these challenges through systematic evaluation of the research and development process for the Acorn CCS project a project designed to develop a scalable full-chain CCS project on the north-east coast of the UK. Through assessment of Acorn's publicly-available outputs we identify strategies which may help to enhance the viability of early-stage CCS projects. Initial capital costs can be minimised by infrastructure re-use particularly pipelines and by re-use of data describing the subsurface acquired during oil and gas exploration activity. Also development of the project in separate stages of activity (e.g. different phases of infrastructure re-use and investment into new infrastructure) enables cost reduction for future build-out phases. Additionally engagement of regional-level policy makers may help to build stakeholder support by situating CCS within regional decarbonisation narratives. We argue that these insights may be translated to general objectives for any CCS project sharing similar characteristics such as legacy infrastructure industrial clusters and an involved stakeholder-base that is engaged with the fossil fuel industry.
The Impact of Climate Targets on Future Steel Production – An Analysis Based on a Global Energy System Model
Apr 2020
Publication
This paper addresses how a global climate target may influence iron and steel production technology deployment and scrap use. A global energy system model ETSAP-TIAM was used and a Scrap Availability Assessment Model (SAAM) was developed to analyse the relation between steel demand recycling and the availability of scrap and their implications for steel production technology choices. Steel production using recycled materials has a continuous growth and is likely to be a major route for steel production in the long run. However as the global average of in-use steel stock increases up to the current average stock of the industrialised economies global steel demand keeps growing and stagnates only after 2050. Due to high steel demand levels and scarcity of scrap more than 50% of the steel production in 2050 will still have to come from virgin materials. Hydrogen-based steel production could become a major technology option for production from virgin materials particularly in a scenario where Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is not available. Imposing a binding climate target will shift the crude steel price to approximately 500 USD per tonne in the year 2050 provided that CCS is available. However the increased prices are induced by CO2 prices rather than inflated production costs. It is concluded that a global climate target is not likely to influence the use of scrap whereas it shall have an impact on the price of scrap. Finally the results indicate that energy efficiency improvements of current processes will only be sufficient to meet the climate target in combination with CCS. New innovative techniques with lower climate impact will be vital for mitigating climate change.
Hydrogen Act Towards the creation of the European Hydrogen Economy
Apr 2021
Publication
It is time that hydrogen moves from an afterthought to a central pillar of the energy system and its key role in delivering climate neutrality means it merits a dedicated framework. It becomes paramount to allow hydrogen to express its full potential as the other leg of the energy mobility and industry transitions. The proposed “Hydrogen Act” is not a single piece of legislation it is intended to be a vision for an umbrella framework aimed at harmonising and integrating all separate hydrogen-related actions and legislations. It focuses on infrastructure and market aspects describing three phases of development: the kick-start phase the ramp-up phase and the market-growth phase.
Investigation of the Hydrogen Embrittlement Susceptibility of T24 Boiler Tubing in the Context of Stress Corrosion Cracking of its Welds
Dec 2018
Publication
For the membrane and spiral walls of the new USC boilers the advanced T24 material was developed. In 2010 however extensive T24 tube weld cracking during the commissioning phase of several newly built boilers was observed. As the dominant root cause Hydrogen Induced - Stress Corrosion Cracking was reported. An investigation into the interaction of the T24 material with hydrogen was launched in order to compare its hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility with that of the T12 steel commonly used for older boiler evaporators. Both base materials and simulated Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) microstructures were tested. Total and diffusible hydrogen in the materials after electrochemical charging were measured. Thermo Desorption Spectrometry was used to gain insights into the trapping behaviour and the apparent diffusion coefficient at room temperature was determined. Based on the hardness and the diffusible hydrogen pick-up capacity of the materials it was concluded that T12 is less susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement than T24 as base material as well as in the HAZ condition and that the HAZ of T24 is more susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement than the base material both in the as welded and in the Post Weld Heat Treated (PWHT) condition. However based on the results of this investigation it could not be determined if the T24 HAZ is less susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement after PWHT.
Calibrating a Ductile Damage Model for Two Pipeline Steels: Method and Challenges
Dec 2020
Publication
This work is part of a project that aims to develop a micromechanics based damage law taking into account hydrogen assisted degradation. A 'vintage' API 5L X56N and a 'modern' API 5L X70M pipeline steel have been selected for this purpose. The paper focuses on an experimental calibration of ductile damage properties of the well known complete Gurson model for the two steels in absence of hydrogen. A basic microstructural characterization is provided showing a banded ferrite-pearlite microstructure for both steels. Charpy impact tests showed splits at the fracture surface for the X70 steel. Double-notched round bar tensile tests are performed aiming to provide the appropriate input for damage model calibration. The double-notched nature of the specimens allows to examine the material state at maximum load in the unfailed notch and the final material state in the failed notch. Different notch radii are used capturing a broad range of positive stress triaxialities. The notches are optically monitored for transverse necking in two perpendicular directions (transverse to rolling and through thickness) to reveal any anisotropy in plastic deformation and/or damage. It is explained how the occurrence of splits at the segregation zone and anisotropy complicate the calibration procedure. Calibration is done for each steel and acceptable results are obtained. However the occurrence of splits did not allow to evaluate the damage model for the highest levels of tested stress triaxiality.
Market Segmentation of Domestic and Commercial Natural Gas Appliances
Jan 2021
Publication
The main goal of the project is to enable the wide adoption of H2NG (hydrogen in natural gas) blends by closing knowledge gaps regarding technical impacts on residential and commercial gas appliances. The project consortium will identify and recommend appropriate codes and standards that should be adapted to answer the needs and develop a strategy for addressing the challenges for new and existing appliances.<br/>This deliverable on market segmentation is part of work package 2 and provides a quantitative segmentation of the gas appliance market in terms of appliance population numbers. It therefore prepares the project partners to perform the subsequent selection of the most representative product types to be tested in the laboratories of the THyGA partners.<br/>The classification is developed to categorise appliances installed in the field based on available statistics calculation methods and estimations. As a result appliance populations are provided for each technology segment that draw a representative picture of the installed end-use appliances within the European Union in 2020.
Report on Socio-economic Impact of the FCH -JU Activities
Feb 2016
Publication
The FCH JU has with its industry and research partners worked since 2008 to develop and demonstrate FCH technologies along with development of the various business and environmental cases. It has involved a programme of increasingly ambitious demonstrations projects a consistent approach to research and development actions and a long term policy commitment. Developing the business and environmental cases for FCH technologies has created an increasingly compelling vision appealing to a range of stakeholders: to FCH technology businesses themselves assured by the long term commitment of the FCH JU to end users in terms of cost and operational performance potential and as critically to increasing numbers of policy and decision makers attracted by the substantial socio-economic benefits.
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen: Joint Undertaking Programme Review 2014 Final Report
Apr 2015
Publication
The 2014 Review is the fourth review of the FCH JU project portfolio. The reviews began in 2011 following a recommendation arising from the interim evaluation of the FCH JU which identified the need to ensure that the FCH JU project portfolio as a whole fulfilled the objectives of the Multi-Annual Implementation or Work Plan.
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