Life Cycle of Fuel Cells: From Raw Materials to End-of-Life Management

Fuel cells are highly efficient electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of fuel directly into electrical energy, while generating minimal pollutant emissions. In recent decades, they have established themselves as a key technology for sustainable energy supply in the transport sector, stationary systems, and portable applications. In order to assess their real contribution to environmental protection and energy efficiency, a comprehensive analysis of their life cycle, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is necessary, covering all stages, from the extraction of raw materials and the production of components, through operation and maintenance, to decommissioning and recycling. Particular attention is paid to the environmental challenges associated with the extraction of platinum catalysts, the production of membranes, and waste management. Economic aspects, such as capital costs, the price of hydrogen, and maintenance costs, also have a significant impact on their widespread implementation. This manuscript presents detailed mathematical models that describe the electrochemical characteristics, energy and mass balances, degradation dynamics, and cost structures over the life cycle of fuel cells. The models focus on proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), with possible extensions to other types. LCA is applied to quantify environmental impacts, such as global warming potential (GWP), while the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) is used to assess economic viability. Particular attention is paid to the sustainability challenges of platinum catalyst extraction, membrane production, and end-of-life material recovery. By integrating technical, environmental, and economic modeling, the paper provides a systematic perspective for optimizing fuel cell deployment within a circular economy.