Canada
Alberta Hydrogen Roadmap
Nov 2021
Publication
Alberta is preparing for a lower emission future. The Hydrogen Roadmap is a key part of that future and Alberta's Recovery Plan. The roadmap is our path to building a provincial hydrogen economy and accessing global markets. It contains several policy actions that will be introduced in the coming months and years and it provides support to the sector as technology and markets develop.<br/>Alberta is already the largest hydrogen producer in Canada. We have all the resources expertise and technology needed to quickly become a global supplier of clean low-cost hydrogen. With a worldwide market estimated to be worth over $2.5 trillion a year by 2050 hydrogen can be the next great energy export that fuels jobs investment and economic opportunity across our province.
Transition of Future Energy System Infrastructure; through Power-to-Gas Pathways
Jul 2016
Publication
Power-to-gas is a promising option for storing interment renewables nuclear baseload power and distributed energy and it is a novel concept for the transition to increased renewable content of current fuels with an ultimate goal of transition to a sustainable low-carbon future energy system that interconnects power transportation sectors and thermal energy demand all together. The aim of this paper is to introduce different Power-to-gas “pathways” including Power to Hydrogen Power to Natural Gas End-users Power to Renewable Content in Petroleum Fuel Power to Power Seasonal Energy Storage to Electricity Power to Zero Emission Transportation Power to Seasonal Storage for Transportation Power to Micro grid Power to Renewable Natural Gas (RNG) to Pipeline (“Methanation”) and Power to Renewable Natural Gas (RNG) to Seasonal Storage. In order to compare the different pathways the review of key technologies of Power-to-gas systems are studied and the qualitative efficiency and benefits of each pathway is investigated from the technical points of view. Moreover different Power-to-gas pathways are discussed as an energy policy option that can be implemented to transition towards a lower carbon economy for Ontario’s energy systems
Valorization and Sequestration of Hydrogen Gas from Biomass Combustion in Solid Waste Incineration NaOH Oxides of Carbon Entrapment Model (SWI-NaOH-OCE Model)
Dec 2019
Publication
The valorization of biomass-based solid wastes for both geotechnical engineering purposes and energy needs has been reviewed to achieve eco-friendly eco-efficient and sustainable engineering and reengineering of civil engineering materials and structures. The objective of this work was to review the procedure developed by SWI-NaOH-OCE Model for the valorization of biomass through controlled direct combustion and the sequestration of hydrogen gas for energy needs. The incineration model gave a lead to the sequestration of emissions released during the direct combustion of biomass and the subsequent entrapment of oxides of carbon and the eventual release of abundant hydrogen gas in the entrapment jar. The generation of geomaterials ash for the purpose of soil stabilization concrete and asphalt modification has encouraged greenhouse emissions but eventually the technology that has been put in place has made it possible to manage and extract these emissions for energy needs. The contribution from researchers has shown that hydrogen sequestration from other sources requires high amount of energy because of the lower energy states of the compounds undergoing thermal decomposition. But this work has presented a more efficient approach to release hydrogen gas which can easily be extracted and stored to meet the energy needs of the future as fuel cell batteries to power vehicles mobile devices robotic systems etc. More so the development of MXene as an exfoliated two-dimensional nanosheets with permeability and filtration selectivity properties which are connected to its chemical composition and structure used in hydrogen gas extraction and separation from its molecular combination has presented an efficient procedure for the production and management of hydrogen gas for energy purposes.
Alloy and Composition Dependence of Hydrogen Embrittlement Susceptibility in High-strength Steel Fasteners
Jun 2017
Publication
High-strength steel fasteners characterized by tensile strengths above 1100 MPa are often used in critical applications where a failure can have catastrophic consequences. Preventing hydrogen embrittlement (HE) failure is a fundamental concern implicating the entire fastener supply chain. Research is typically conducted under idealized conditions that cannot be translated into know-how prescribed in fastener industry standards and practices. Additionally inconsistencies and even contradictions in fastener industry standards have led to much confusion and many preventable or misdiagnosed fastener failures. HE susceptibility is a function of the material condition which is comprehensively described by the metallurgical and mechanical properties. Material strength has a first-order effect on HE susceptibility which increases significantly above 1200 MPa and is characterized by a ductile--brittle transition. For a given concentration of hydrogen and at equal strength the critical strength above which the ductile–brittle transition begins can vary due to second-order effects of chemistry tempering temperature and sub-microstructure. Additionally non-homogeneity of the metallurgical structure resulting from poorly controlled heat treatment impurities and non-metallic inclusions can increase HE susceptibility of steel in ways that are measurable but unpredictable. Below 1200 MPa non-conforming quality is often the root cause of real-life failures.
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Hydrogen Storage for Mobility: A Review
Jun 2019
Publication
Numerous reviews on hydrogen storage have previously been published. However most of these reviews deal either exclusively with storage materials or the global hydrogen economy. This paper presents a review of hydrogen storage systems that are relevant for mobility applications. The ideal storage medium should allow high volumetric and gravimetric energy densities quick uptake and release of fuel operation at room temperatures and atmospheric pressure safe use and balanced cost-effectiveness. All current hydrogen storage technologies have significant drawbacks including complex thermal management systems boil-off poor efficiency expensive catalysts stability issues slow response rates high operating pressures low energy densities and risks of violent and uncontrolled spontaneous reactions. While not perfect the current leading industry standard of compressed hydrogen offers a functional solution and demonstrates a storage option for mobility compared to other technologies.
PRD Hydrogen Release and Dispersion, a Comparison of CFD Results Obtained from Using Ideal and Real Gas Law Properties.
Sep 2005
Publication
In this paper CFD techniques were applied to the simulations of hydrogen release from a 400-bar tank to ambient through a Pressure Relieve Device (PRD) 6 mm (¼”) opening. The numerical simulations using the TOPAZ software developed by Sandia National Laboratory addressed the changes of pressure density and flow rate variations at the leak orifice during release while the PHOENICS software package predicted extents of various hydrogen concentration envelopes as well as the velocities of gas mixture for the dispersion in the domain. The Abel-Noble equation of state (AN-EOS) was incorporated into the CFD model implemented through the TOPAZ and PHOENICS software to accurately predict the real gas properties for hydrogen release and dispersion under high pressures. The numerical results were compared with those obtained from using the ideal gas law and it was found that the ideal gas law overestimates the hydrogen mass release rates by up to 35% during the first 25 seconds of release. Based on the findings the authors recommend that a real gas equation of state be used for CFD predictions of high-pressure PRD releases.
Simulation of Detonation after an Accidental Hydrogen Release in Enclosed Environments
Sep 2007
Publication
An accidental hydrogen release in equipment enclosures may result in the presence of a detonable mixture in a confined environment. Numerical simulation is potentially a useful tool for damage assessment in these situations. To assess the value of CFD techniques numerical simulation of detonation was performed for two realistic scenarios. The first scenario starts with a pipe failure in an electrolyzer resulting in a leak of 42 g of hydrogen. The second scenario deals with a failure in a reformer where 84 g of hydrogen is released. In both cases dispersion patterns were first obtained from separate numerical simulation and were then used as initial condition in a detonation simulation based upon the reactive Euler's equations. Energy was artificially added in a narrow region to simulate detonative ignition. In the electrolyzer ignition was assumed to occur 500 ms after beginning of the release. Results show a detonation failing on the top and bottom side but propagating left and right before eventually failing also. Average impulse was 500 Ns/m². For the reformer three cases were simulated with ignition 1.0 1.4 and 2.0 seconds after the beginning of the release. In two cases the detonation wave failed everywhere except in the direction of the release in which it continued propagating until reaching the side wall. In the third the detonation failed everywhere at first but later a deflagration to detonation transition occurred resulting in a strong wave that propagated rapidly toward the side wall. In all three cases the consequences are more serious than in the electrolyzer.
Risk-Informed Process and Tools for Permitting Hydrogen Fueling Stations
Sep 2007
Publication
The permitting process for hydrogen fueling stations varies from country to country. However a common step in the permitting process is the demonstration that the proposed fueling station meets certain safety requirements. Currently many permitting authorities rely on compliance with well known codes and standards as a means to permit a facility. Current codes and standards for hydrogen facilities require certain safety features specify equipment made of material suitable for hydrogen environment and include separation or safety distances. Thus compliance with the code and standard requirements is widely accepted as evidence of a safe design. However to ensure that a hydrogen facility is indeed safe the code and standard requirements should be identified using a risk-informed process that utilizes an acceptable level of risk. When compliance with one or more code or standard requirements is not possible an evaluation of the risk associated with the exemptions to the requirements should be understood and conveyed to the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ). Establishment of a consistent risk assessment toolset and associated data is essential to performing these risk evaluations. This paper describes an approach for risk-informing the permitting process for hydrogen fueling stations that relies primarily on the establishment of risk-informed codes and standards. The proposed risk-informed process begins with the establishment of acceptable risk criteria associated with the operation of hydrogen fueling stations. Using accepted Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) techniques and the established risk criteria the minimum code and standard requirements necessary to ensure the safe operation of hydrogen facilities can be identified. Risk informed permitting processes exist in some countries and are being developed in others. To facilitate consistent risk-informed approaches the participants in the International Energy Agency (IEA) Task 19 on hydrogen safety are working to identify acceptable risk criteria QRA models and supporting data.
Humidity Tolerant Hydrogen-oxygen Recombination Catalysts for Hydrogen Safety Applications
Sep 2017
Publication
Catalytic hydrogen-oxygen recombination is a non-traditional method to limit hydrogen accumulation and prevent combustion in the hydrogen industry. Outside of conventional use in the nuclear power industry this hydrogen safety technology can be applied when traditional hydrogen mitigation methods (i.e. active and natural ventilation) are not appropriate or when a back-up system is required. In many of these cases it is desirable for hydrogen to be removed without the use of power or other services which makes catalytic hydrogen recombination attractive. Instances where catalytic recombination of hydrogen can be utilized as a stand-alone or back-up measure to prevent hydrogen accumulation include radioactive waste storage (hydrogen generated from water radiolysis or material corrosion) battery rooms hydrogen-cooled generators hydrogen equipment enclosures etc.<br/>Water tolerant hydrogen-oxygen recombiner catalysts for non-nuclear applications have been developed at Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (CNL) through a program in which catalyst materials were selected prepared and initially tested in a spinning-basket type reactor to benchmark the catalyst’s performance with respect to hydrogen recombination in dry and humid conditions. Catalysts demonstrating high activity for hydrogen recombination were then selected and tested in trickle-bed and gas phase recombiner systems to determine their performance in more typical deployment conditions. Future plans include testing of selected catalysts after exposure to specific poisons to determine the catalysts’ tolerance for such poisons.
The Crucial Role of the Lewis Number in Jet Ignition
Sep 2011
Publication
During the early phase of the transient process following a hydrogen leak into the atmosphere a contact surface appears separating hot air from cold hydrogen. Locally the interface is approximately planar. Diffusion occurs potentially leading to ignition. This process was analyzed by Lin˜a´n and Crespo (1976) for Lewis number unity and Lin˜a´n and Williams (1993) for Lewis number less than unity. In addition to conduction these processes are affected by expansion due to the flow which leads to a temperature drop. If chemistry is very temperature-sensitive then the reaction rate peaks close to the hot region where relatively little fuel is present. Indeed the Arrhenius rate drops rapidly as temperature drops much more so than fuel concentration. However the small fuel concentration present close to the airrich side depends crucially upon the balance between fuel diffusion and heat diffusion hence the fuel Lewis number. For Lewis number unity the fuel concentration present due to diffusion is comparable to the rate of consumption due to chemistry. If the Lewis number is less than unity fuel concentration brought in by diffusion is large compared with temperature-controlled chemistry. For a Lewis number greater than unity diffusion is not strong enough to bring in as much fuel as chemistry would be able to burn and combustion is controlled by fuel diffusion. In the former case combustion occurs faster leading to a localized ignition at a finite time determined by the analysis. As long as the temperature drop due to the expansion associated with the multidimensional nature of the jet does not lower significantly the reaction rate up to that point ignition in the jet takes place. For fuel Lewis number greater than unity first the reaction rate is much lower. Second chemistry does not lead to a defined ignition. Eventually expansion will affect the process and ignition does not take place. In summary it appears that the reason why hydrogen is the only fuel for which jet ignition has been observed is a Lewis number effect coupled with a high speed of sound hence a high initial temperature discontinuity.
Estimation of Filling Time for Compressed Hydrogen Refueling
Mar 2019
Publication
In order to facilitate the application of hydrogen energy and ensure its safety the compressed hydrogen storage tank on board needs to be full of hydrogen gas within 3 minutes. Therefore to meet this requirement the effects of refueling parameters on the filling time need to be investigated urgently. For the purpose of solving this issue a novel analytical solution of filling time is obtained from a lumped parameter model in this paper. According to the equation of state for real gas and dimensionless numbers Nu and Re the function relationships between the filling time and the refueling parameters are presented. These parameters include initial temperature initial pressure inflow temperature final temperature and final pressure. These equations are used to fit the reference data the results of fitting show good agreement. Then the values of fitting parameters are further utilized so as to verify the validity of these formulas. We believe this study can contribute to control the hydrogen filling time and ensure the safety during fast filling process.
Vertical Turbulent Buoyant Helium Jet - CFD Modelling and Validation
Sep 2005
Publication
In this paper a vertical turbulent round jet of helium was studied numerically using the PHOENICS software package. The flow was assumed to be steady incompressible and turbulent. The jet discharge Froude number was 14000 and the turbulent Schmidt number was 0.7. The incompressible Reynolds average Navier-Stokes equations and helium transport equation expressed in 2-D axisymmetric domain were applied to model the underlying helium release. The k-e RNG turbulence model was used for the calculations of the corresponding turbulent viscosity diffusivity velocity and concentration fields in the domain. The simulation results are compared with the experimental measurements from the earlier published studies on helium jets in non-buoyant jet region (NBJ) intermediate region (I) and buoyant plume region (BP). The numerical results show that the radial profiles of mean velocity and mean concentration are consistent with the empirical data scaled by the effective diameter and density-ratio dependence. The mean velocity and concentration fields along the axis of the jet agree with the decay laws correlated from the previous experiments. The discrepancy between the numerical and experimental data is within 10% proving that the current CFD model for gas release and dispersion is robust accurate and reliable and that the CFD technique can be used as an alternative to the experiments with similar helium jets. The authors believe that the current CFD model is well validated through this study and can be further extended to predict similar hydrogen releases and dispersion if the model is properly applied with hydrogen properties.
Simulations of Hydrogen Releases from a Storage Tanks- Dispersion and Consequences of Ignition
Sep 2005
Publication
We present results from hydrogen dispersion simulations from a pressurized reservoir at constant flow rate in the presence and absence of a wall. The dispersion simulations are performed using a commercial finite volume solver. Validation of the approach is discussed. Constant concentration envelopes corresponding to the 2% 4% and 15% hydrogen concentration in air are calculated for a subcritical vertical jet and for an equivalent subcritical horizontal jet from a high pressure reservoir. The consequences of ignition and the resulting overpressure are calculated for subcritical horizontal and vertical hydrogen jets and in the latter case compared to available experimental data.
Ignition Experiments of Hydrogen Mixtures by Different Methods and Description of the DRDC Test Facilities
Sep 2009
Publication
The paper will present results of hydrogen/oxygen mixtures ignited by using electric sparks electrostatic discharges a heating element and a flame. Measurements of the lower flammability limit (LFL) was done for each ignition method. The hydrogen mixtures of different concentrations were ignited at the bottom of a combustion chamber leading to an upward propagation of the resulting flame. At some level of concentration the combustion was partial due to the limited upward propagation. The complete combustion of the whole mixture was observed at concentration limits higher than the known LFL of 4% vol. for hydrogen in air. The paper will describe the test facilities and the resulting ignition probabilities for different ignition methods.
Hydrogen Strategy for Canada: Seizing the Opportunities for Hydrogen - A Call to Action
Dec 2020
Publication
For more than a century our nation’s brightest minds have been working on the technology to turn the invisible promise of hydrogen into tangible solutions. Canadian ingenuity and innovation has once again brought us to a pivotal moment. As we rebuild our economy from the impacts of COVID-19 and fight the existential threat of climate change the development of low-carbon hydrogen is a strategic priority for Canada. The time to act is now.<br/>The Hydrogen Strategy for Canada lays out an ambitious framework for actions that will cement hydrogen as a tool to achieve our goal of net-zero emissions by 2050 and position Canada as a global industrial leader of clean renewable fuels. This strategy shows us that by 2050 clean hydrogen can help us achieve our net-zero goal—all while creating jobs growing our economy and protecting our environment. This will involve switching from conventional gasoline diesel and natural gas to zero-emissions fuel sources taking advantage of new regulatory environments and embracing new technologies to give Canadians more choice of zero emission alternatives.<br/>As one of the top 10 hydrogen producers in the world today we are rich in the feedstocks that produce hydrogen. We are blessed with a strong energy sector and the geographic assets that will propel Canada to be a major exporter of hydrogen and hydrogen technologies. Hydrogen might be nature’s smallest molecule but its potential is enormous. It provides new markets for our conventional energy resources and holds the potential to decarbonize many sectors of our economy including resource extraction freight transportation power generation manufacturing and the production of steel and cement. This Strategy is a call to action. It will spur investments and strategic partnerships across the country and beyond our borders. It will position Canada to seize economic and environmental opportunities that exist coast to coast. Expanding our exports. Creating as many as 350000 good green jobs over the next three decades. All while dramatically reducing our greenhouse gas emissions. And putting a net-zero future within our reach.<br/>The importance of Canada’s resource industries and our clean technology sectors has been magnified during the pandemic. We must harness our combined will expertise and financial resources to fully seize the opportunities that hydrogen presents. This strategy is the product of three years of study and analysis including extensive engagement sessions where we heard from more than 1500 of our country’s leading experts and stakeholders. But its release is not the end of a process. This is only the beginning. Together we will use this Strategy to guide our actions and investments. By working with provinces and territories Indigenous partners and the private-sector and by leveraging our many advantages we will create the prosperity we all want protect the planet we all cherish and we will ensure we leave no one behind.
Evaluation of Hydrogen, Propane and Methane-air Detonations Instability and Detonability
Sep 2013
Publication
In this paper the detonation propensity of different compositions of mixtures of hydrogen propane and methane with air has been evaluated over a wide range of compositions. We supplement the conventional calculations of the induction delay with calculations of the characteristic acceleration parameter recently suggested by Radulescu Sharpeand Bradley(RSB) to characterize the instability of detonations. While it is well established that the ignition delay provides a good measure for detonability the RSB acceleration or its non-dimensionalform provides a further discriminant between mixtures with similar ignition delays. The present assessment of detonability reveals that while a stoichiometric mixture of hydrogen-air has an ignition delay one and two orders of magnitude shorter than respectively propane and methane hydrogen also has a parameter smaller by respectively one and two orders of magnitude. Its smaller propensity for instability is reflected by an RSB acceleration parameter similar to the two hydrocarbons. The predictions however indicate that lean hydrogen mixtures are likely to be much more unstable than stoichiometric ones. The relation between the parameter and potential to amplify an unstable transverse wave structure has been further determined through numerical simulation of decaying reactive Taylor-Sedov blast waves. Using a simplified two-step model calibrated for these fuels we show that methane mixtures develop cellular structures more readily than propane and hydrogen when observed on similar induction time scales. Future work should be devoted towards a quantitative inclusion of the RSB parameter in assessing the detonability of a given mixture.
A Comparative Study of Detonability and Propensity to Sustain High-speed Turbulent Deflagrations in Hydrogen and Methane Mixtures
Sep 2013
Publication
We’ve studied the conditions enabling a detonation to be quenched when interacting with an obstruction and the propensity for establishing subsequent fast-flame. Oxy-hydrogen detonations were found quench more easily than oxy-methane detonations when comparing the ratio of gap size and the detonation cell size. High-speed turbulent deflagrations that re-accelerate back to a detonation were only observed in methane-oxygen mixtures. Separate hot-spot ignition calculations revealed that the higher detonability of methane correlates with its stronger propensity to develop localized hot-spots. The results suggest that fast-flames are more difficult to form in hydrogen than in methane mixtures.
Simulation of Shock-Initiated Ignition
Sep 2009
Publication
The scenario of detonative ignition in shocked mixture is significant because it is a contributor to deflagration to detonation transition for example following shock reflections. However even in one dimension simulation of ignition between a contact surface or a flame and a shock moving into a combustible mixture is difficult because of the singular nature of the initial conditions. Initially as the shock starts moving into reactive mixture the region filled with reactive mixture has zero thickness. On a fixed grid the number of grid points between the shock and the contact surface increases as the shock moves away from the latter. Due to initial lack of resolution in the region of interest staircasing may occur whereby the resulting plots consist of jumps between few values a few grid points and these numerical artifacts are amplified by the chemistry which is very sensitive to temperature leading to unreliable results. The formulation is transformed replacing time and space by time and space over time as the independent variables. This frame of reference corresponds to the self-similar formulation in which the non-reactive problem remains stationary and the initial conditions are well-resolved. Additionally a solution obtained from short time perturbation is used as initial condition at a time still short enough for the perturbation to be very accurate but long enough so that there is sufficient resolution. The numerical solution to the transformed problem is obtained using an essentially non-oscillatory algorithm which is adequate not only for the early part of the process but also for the latter part when chemistry leads to appearance of a shock and eventually a detonation wave is formed. A validation study was performed and the results were compared with the literature for single step Arrhenius chemistry. The method and its implementation were found to be effective. Results are presented for values of activation energy ranging from mild to stiff.
State-of-the-Art and Research Priorities in Hydrogen Safety
Sep 2013
Publication
On October 16-17 2012 the International Association for Hydrogen Safety (HySafe) in cooperation with the Institute for Energy and Transport of the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC IET Petten) held a two-day workshop dedicated to Hydrogen Safety Research Priorities. The workshop was hosted by Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) in Berlin Germany. The main idea of the Workshop was to bring together stakeholders who can address the existing knowledge gaps in the area of the hydrogen safety including identification and prioritization of such gaps from the standpoint of scientific knowledge both experimental and theoretical including numerical. The experience highlighting these gaps which was obtained during both practical applications (industry) and risk assessment should serve as reference point for further analysis. The program included two sections: knowledge gaps as they are addressed by industry and knowledge gaps and state-of-the-art by research. In the current work the main results of the workshop are summarized and analysed.
Integration of Wind Energy, Hydrogen and Natural Gas Pipeline Systems to Meet Community and Transportation Energy Needs: A Parametric Study
Apr 2014
Publication
The potential benefits are examined of the “Power-to-Gas” (P2G) scheme to utilize excess wind power capacity by generating hydrogen (or potentially methane) for use in the natural gas distribution grid. A parametric analysis is used to determine the feasibility and size of systems producing hydrogen that would be injected into the natural gas grid. Specifically wind farms located in southwestern Ontario Canada are considered. Infrastructure requirements wind farm size pipeline capacity geographical dispersion hydrogen production rate capital and operating costs are used as performance measures. The model takes into account the potential production rate of hydrogen and the rate that it can be injected into the local gas grid. “Straw man” systems are examined centered on a wind farm size of 100 MW integrating a 16-MW capacity electrolysis system typically producing 4700 kg of hydrogen per day.
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