Germany
Generalized Thermodynamic Modelling of Hydrogen Storage Tankes for Truck Application
Mar 2024
Publication
Hydrogen-driven heavy-duty trucks are a promising technology for reducing CO2 emissions in the transportation sector. Thus storing hydrogen efficiently onboard is vital. The three available or currently developed physical hydrogen storage technologies (compressed gaseous subcooled liquid and cryo-compressed hydrogen) are promising solutions. For a profound thermodynamic comparison of these storage systems a universally applicable model is required. Thus this article introduces a generalized thermodynamic model and conducts thermodynamic comparisons in terms of typical drive cycle scenarios. Therefore a model introduced by Hamacher et al. [1] for cryo-compressed hydrogen tanks is generalized by means of an explicit model formulation using the property ��2� from REFPROP [2] which is understood as a generic specific isochoric two-phase heat capacity. Due to an implemented decision logic minor changes to the equation system are automatically made whenever the operation mode or phase of the tank changes. The resulting model can simulate all three storage tank systems in all operating scenarios and conditions in the single- and two-phase region. Additionally the explicit model formulation provides deeper insights into the thermodynamic processes in the tank. The model is applied to the three physical hydrogen storage technologies to compare drive cycles heat requirement dormancy behavior and optimal usable density. The highest driving ranges were achieved with cryo-compressed hydrogen however it also comes with higher heating requirements compared to subcooled liquid hydrogen.
Life Cycle Assessment of a 5 MW Polymer Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis Plant
Jan 2024
Publication
This study performs a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment of a 5 MW protonexchange membrane water electrolysis plant. The analysis follows a thoroughengineering-based bottom-up design based on the electrochemical model of thesystem. Three scenarios are analyzed comprising a state-of-the-art (SoA) plantoperated with the German electricity grid-mix a SoA plant operated with acompletely decarbonized energy system and a future development plantelectrolyzer with reduced energy and material demand operated in a completelydecarbonized energy system. The results display a global warming potential of34 kg CO2-eq. kg-H 21 and indicate a reduction potential of 89% when the plantis operated in a decarbonized energy system. A further reduction of 9% can beachieved by the technological development of the plant. Due to the reducedimpacts of operation in a completely decarbonized energy system the operationat locations with large offshore wind electricity capacity is recommended. In theconstruction phase the stacks especially the anode catalyst iridium bipolarplates and porous transport layers are identified as dominant sources of theenvironmental impact. A sensitivity analysis shows that the environmentalimpact of the construction phase increases with a decreasing amount ofoperational full load hours of the plant.RESEARCH ARTICLEwww.advenergysustres.comAdv. Energy Sustainability Res. 2024 5 2300135 2300135 (1 of 19) © 2023 The Authors. Advanced Energy and Sustainability Researchpublished by Wiley-VCH GmbH
Charting the Course: Navigating Decarbonisation Pathways in Greece, Germany, The Netherlands, and Spain’s Industrial Sectors
Jul 2024
Publication
In the quest for a sustainable future energy-intensive industries (EIIs) stand at the forefront of Europe’s decarbonisation mission. Despite their significant emissions footprint the path to comprehensive decarbonisation remains elusive at EU and national levels. This study scrutinises key sectors such as non-ferrous metals steel cement lime chemicals fertilisers ceramics and glass. It maps out their current environmental impact and potential for mitigation through innovative strategies. The analysis spans across Spain Greece Germany and the Netherlands highlighting sector-specific ecosystems and the technological breakthroughs shaping them. It addresses the urgency for the industry-wide adoption of electrification the utilisation of green hydrogen biomass bio-based or synthetic fuels and the deployment of carbon capture utilisation and storage to ensure a smooth transition. Investment decisions in EIIs will depend on predictable economic and regulatory landscapes. This analysis discusses the risks associated with continued investment in high-emission technologies which may lead to premature decommissioning and significant economic repercussions. It presents a dichotomy: invest in climate-neutral technologies now or face the closure and offshoring of operations later with consequences for employment. This open discussion concludes that while the technology for near-complete climate neutrality in EIIs exists and is rapidly advancing the higher costs compared to conventional methods pose a significant barrier. Without the ability to pass these costs to consumers the adoption of such technologies is stifled. Therefore it calls for decisive political commitment to support the industry’s transition ensuring a greener more resilient future for Europe’s industrial backbone.
Hydrogen Storage Capacity of Salt Caverns and Deep Aquifers Versus Demand for Hydrogen Storage: A Case Study of Poland
Nov 2023
Publication
Geological structures in deep aquifers and salt caverns can play an important role in large-scale hydrogen storage. However more work needs to be done to address the hydrogen storage demand for zero-emission energy systems. Thus the aim of the article is to present the demand for hydrogen storage expressed in the number of salt caverns in bedded rock salt deposits and salt domes or the number of structures in deep aquifers. The analysis considers minimum and maximum hydrogen demand cases depending on future energy system configurations in 2050. The method used included the estimation of the storage capacity of salt caverns in bedded rock salt deposits and salt domes and selected structures in deep aquifers. An estimation showed a large hydrogen storage potential of geological structures. In the case of analyzed bedded rock salt deposits and salt domes the average storage capacity per cavern is 0.05–0.09 TWhH2 and 0.06–0.20 TWhH2 respectively. Hydrogen storage capacity in analyzed deep aquifers ranges from 0.016 to 4.46 TWhH2. These values indicate that in the case of the upper bound for storage demand there is a need for the 62 to 514 caverns depending on considered bedded rock salt deposits and salt domes or the 9 largest analyzed structures in deep aquifers. The results obtained are relevant to the discussion on the global hydrogen economy and the methodology can be used for similar considerations in other countries.
Advancing Life Cycle Assessment of Sustainable Green Hydrogen Production Using Domain-Specific Fine-Tuning by Large Language Models Augmentation
Nov 2024
Publication
Assessing the sustainable development of green hydrogen and assessing its potential environmental impacts using the Life Cycle Assessment is crucial. Challenges in LCA like missing environmental data are often addressed using machine learning such as artificial neural networks. However to find an ML solution researchers need to read extensive literature or consult experts. This research demonstrates how customised LLMs trained with domain-specific papers can help researchers overcome these challenges. By starting small by consolidating papers focused on the LCA of proton exchange membrane water electrolysis which produces green hydrogen and ML applications in LCA. These papers are uploaded to OpenAI to create the LlamaIndex enabling future queries. Using the LangChain framework researchers query the customised model (GPT-3.5-turbo) receiving tailored responses. The results demonstrate that customised LLMs can assist researchers in providing suitable ML solutions to address data inaccuracies and gaps. The ability to quickly query an LLM and receive an integrated response across relevant sources presents an improvement over manually retrieving and reading individual papers. This shows that leveraging fine-tuned LLMs can empower researchers to conduct LCAs more efficiently and effectively.
Stakeholder Perspectives on the Scale-up of Green Hydrogen and Electrolyzers
Nov 2023
Publication
Green hydrogen is a promising alternative to fossil fuels. However current production capacities for electrolyzers and green hydrogen are not in line with national political goals and projected demand. Considering these issues we conducted semi-structured interviews to determine the narratives of different stakeholders during this transformation as well as challenges and opportunities for the green hydrogen value chain. We interviewed eight experts with different roles along the green hydrogen value chain ranging from producers and consumers of green hydrogen to electrolyzer manufacturers and consultants as well as experts from the political sphere. Most experts see the government as necessary for scale-up by setting national capacity targets policy support and providing subsidies. However the experts also accuse the governments of delaying development through overregulation and long implementation times for regulations. The main challenges that were identified are the current lack of renewable electricity and demand for green hydrogen. Demand for green hydrogen is influenced by supply costs which partly depend on prices for electrolyzers. However one key takeaway of the interviews is the skeptical assessments by the experts on the currently discussed estimates for price reduction potential of electrolyzers. While demand supply and prices are all factors that influence each other they result in feedback loops in investment decisions for the energy and manufacturing industries. A second key takeaway is that according to the experts current investment decisions in new production capacities are not solely dependent on short-term financial gains but also based on expected first mover advantages. These include experience and market share which are seen as factors for opportunities for future financial gains. Summarized the results present several challenges and opportunities for green hydrogen and electrolyzers and how to address them effectively. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the emerging green hydrogen value chain.
Hydrogen as a Panacea for Decarbonising Everything? Exploring Contested Hydrogen Pathways in Germany
Oct 2023
Publication
Technological change is often seen as part of the solution to problems of global sustainability. A wide-ranging literature on how path dependent—often fossil fuel-based—socio-technical configurations can be overcome by more sustainable configurations has emerged over the last two decades. One potential transition pathway to transform electricity heat and mobility systems as well as industrial production is the use of hydrogen. In recent years hydrogen has received increasing attention as part of decarbonisation strategies in many countries as well as by international organisations such as the International Energy Agency or the International Renewable Energy Agency. Also in Germany it has become a central component of climate change policy and is seen by some actors almost as a kind of panacea where the use of hydrogen is expected to decarbonise a wide range of sectors. Policy makers have the ambition for Germany to become a leader in hydrogen development and therefore help to contribute to what Grubler called ‘grand patterns of technological change’. The aim of this paper is to analyse whether relevant actors share expectations for transition pathways based on hydrogen which would foster wide diffusion. Our empirical analysis shows that there are multiple contested pathways both in terms of how hydrogen is produced as well as in which applications or sectors it is to be used. This causes uncertainty and slows down hydrogen developments in Germany. We contribute to an emerging literature on the politics of contested transition pathways and also critically engage with Grubler’s ‘grand patterns’ argument. Results support the idea that the concept of socio-technical pathways allows to expose tensions between competing values and interests. The German government is under considerable pressure regarding competing visions on hydrogen transition pathways. A targeted political prioritisation of hydrogen applications could mitigate tensions and support a shared vision.
A Techno-economic Analysis of Future Hydrogen Reconversion Technologies
Jun 2024
Publication
The transformation of fossil fuel-based power generation systems towards greenhouse gas-neutral ones based on renewable energy sources is one of the key challenges facing contemporary society. The temporal volatility that accompanies the integration of renewable energy (e.g. solar radiation and wind) must be compensated to ensure that at any given time a sufficient supply of electrical energy for the demands of different sectors is available. Green hydrogen which is produced using renewable energy sources via electrolysis can be used to chemically store electrical energy on a seasonal basis. Reconversion technologies are needed to generate electricity from stored hydrogen during periods of low renewable electricity generation. This study presents a detailed technoeconomic assessment of hydrogen gas turbines. These technologies are also superior to fuel cells due to their comparatively low investment costs especially when it comes to covering the residual loads. As of today hydrogen gas turbines are only available in laboratory or small-scale settings and have no market penetration or high technology readiness level. The primary focus of this study is to analyze the effects on gas turbine component costs when hydrogen is used instead of natural gas. Based on these findings an economic analysis addressing the current state of these turbine components is conducted. A literature review on the subsystems is performed considering statements from leading manufactures and researchers to derive the cost deviations and total cost per installed capacity (€/kWel). The results reveal that a hydrogen gas turbine power plant has an expected cost increase of 8.5% compared to a conventional gas turbine one. This leads to an average cost of 542.5 €/kWel for hydrogen gas turbines. For hydrogen combined cycle power plants the expected cost increase corresponds to the cost of the gas turbine system as the steam turbine subsystem remains unaffected by fuel switching. Additionally power plant retrofit potentials were calculated and the respective costs in the case of an upgrade were estimated. For Germany as a case study for an industrialized country the potential of a possible retrofit is between 2.7 and 11.4 GW resulting to a total investment between 0.3 and 1.1 billion €.
Techno-economic Analysis of Underground Hydrogen Storage in Europe
Dec 2023
Publication
Hydrogen storage is crucial to developing secure renewable energy systems to meet the European Union’s 2050 carbon neutrality objectives. However a knowledge gap exists concerning the site-specific performance and economic viability of utilizing underground gas storage (UGS) sites for hydrogen storage in Europe. We compile information on European UGS sites to assess potential hydrogen storage capacity and evaluate the associated current and future costs. The total hydrogen storage potential in Europe is 349 TWh of working gas energy (WGE) with site-specific capital costs ranging from $10 million to $1 billion. Porous media and salt caverns boasting a minimum storage capacity of 0.5 TWh WGE exhibit levelized costs of $1.5 and $0.8 per kilogram of hydrogen respectively. It is estimated that future levelized costs associated with hydrogen storage can potentially decrease to as low as $0.4 per kilogram after three experience cycles. Leveraging these techno-economic considerations we identify suitable storage sites.
IEA TCP Task 43 - Subtask Safety Distances: State of the Art
Sep 2023
Publication
The large deployment of hydrogen technologies for new applications such as heat power mobility and other emerging industrial utilizations is essential to meet targets for CO2 reduction. This will lead to an increase in the number of hydrogen installations nearby local populations that will handle hydrogen technologies. Local regulations differ and provide different safety and/or separation distances in different geographies. The purpose of this work is to give an insight on different methodologies and recommendations developed for hydrogen (mainly) risk management and consequences assessment of accidental scenarios. The first objective is to review available methodologies and to identify the divergent points on the methodology. For this purpose a survey has been launched to obtain the needed inputs from the subtask participants. The current work presents the outcomes of this survey highlighting the gaps and suggesting the prioritization of the actions to take to bridge these gaps.
Experimental Investigation of Hydrogen-Air Flame Propagation in Fire Extinguishing Foam
Sep 2023
Publication
An important element of modern firefighting is sometimes the use of foam. After the use of extinguishing foam on vehicles or machinery operated by compressed gases it is conceivable that masses of foam were enriched by escaping fuel gas. Furthermore new foam creation enriched with a high level of fuel gas from the deposed foam solution becomes theoretically possible. The aim of this study was to carry out basic experimental investigations on the combustion of water-based H2/air foam. Ignition tests were carried out in a transparent and vertically oriented cylindrical tube (d = 0.09 m; 1.5 m length) and a rectangular thin layer channel (0.02 m x 0.2 m; 2 m length). Additionally results from larger scale tests performed inside a pool (0.30 m x 1 m x 2 m) are presented. All ducts are semi-confined and a foam generator fills the ducts from below with the defined foam. The foams vary in type and concentration of the foaming agent and hydrogen concentration. The expansion ratio of the combustible foam is in the range of 20 to 50 and the investigated H2-concentrations vary from 8 to 70 % H2 in air. High-speed imaging is used to observe the combustion and determine flame velocities. The study shows that foam is flammable over a wide range of H2-concentrations from 9 to 65 % H2 in air. For certain H2/air-mixtures an abrupt flame acceleration is observed. The velocity of combustion increases rapidly by an order of magnitude and reaches velocities of up to 80 m/s.
Semi-Systematic Literature Review on the Contribution of Hydrogen to Universal Access to Energy in the Rationale of Sustainable Development Goal Target 7.1
Feb 2023
Publication
As part of the United Nations’ (UN) Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG7) SDG target 7.1 recognizes universal electrification and the provision of clean cooking fuel as two fundamental challenges for global society. Faltering progress toward SDG target 7.1 calls for innovative technologies to stimulate advancements. Hydrogen has been proposed as a versatile energy carrier to be applied in both pillars of SDG target 7.1: electrification and clean cooking. This paper conducts a semi-systematic literature review to provide the status quo of research on the application of hydrogen in the rationale of SDG 7.1 covering the technical integration pathways as well as the key economic environmental and social aspects of its use. We identify decisive factors for the future development of hydrogen use in the rationale of SDG target 7.1 and by complementing our analysis with insights from the related literature propose future avenues of research. The literature on electrification proposes that hydrogen can serve as a backup power supply in rural off-grid communities. While common electrification efforts aim to supply appliances that use lower amounts of electricity a hydrogen-based power supply can satisfy appliances with higher power demands including electric cook stoves while simultaneously supporting clean cooking efforts. Alternatively with the exclusive aim of stimulating clean cooking hydrogen is proposed to be used as a clean cooking fuel via direct combustion in distribution and utilization infrastructures analogous to Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG). While expected economic and technical developments are seen as likely to render hydrogen technologies economically competitive with conventional fossil fuels in the future the potential of renewably produced hydrogen usage to reduce climate-change impacts and point-of-use emissions is already evident today. Social benefits are likely when meeting essential safety standards as a hydrogen-based power supply offers service on a high tier that might overachieve SDG 7.1 ambitions while hydrogen cooking via combustion fits into the existing social habits of LPG users. However the literature lacks clear evidence on the social impact of hydrogen usage. Impact assessments of demonstration projects are required to fill this research gap.
Power Sector Effects of Green Hydrogen Production in Germany
Aug 2023
Publication
The use of green hydrogen can support the decarbonization of sectors which are difficult to electrify such as industry or heavy transport. Yet the wider power sector effects of providing green hydrogen are not well understood so far. We use an open-source electricity sector model to investigate potential power sector interactions of three alternative supply chains for green hydrogen in Germany in the year 2030. We distinguish between model settings in which Germany is modeled as an electric island versus embedded in an interconnected system with its neighboring countries as well as settings with and without technology-specific capacity bounds on wind energy. The findings suggest that large-scale hydrogen storage can provide valuable flexibility to the power system in settings with high renewable energy shares. These benefits are more pronounced in the absence of flexibility from geographical balancing. We further find that the effects of green hydrogen production on the optimal generation portfolio strongly depend on the model assumptions regarding capacity expansion potentials. We also identify a potential distributional effect of green hydrogen production at the expense of other electricity consumers of which policy makers should be aware.
Challenges and Potentials for Additive Manufacturing of Hydrogen Energy Components: A Review
Mar 2025
Publication
Climate change necessitates the development of sustainable energy systems with hydrogen technologies playing a key role in this transition. Additive manufacturing (AM) offers a significant potential to enhance the efficiency of hydrogen energy components and reduce their costs through rapid prototyping design freedom and functional integration. This review provides the first comprehensive summary of the current state of research on the application of AM processes in the production storage and utilization of hydrogen. It highlights various AM processes such as powder bed fusion directed energy deposition fused filament fabrication and stereolithography for the advancement of hydrogen energy components. Current research trends include the material development multi-material AM hybrid processes and the integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning. At present the technologies presented are mainly at a development stage of TRL 4–5. The next major step towards industrialization is the demonstration of prototypes outside the laboratory.
Assessing the Impact of Local Energy Generation and Storage to Achieve the Decarbonization of the Single-family Housing Stock in Germany
Nov 2024
Publication
The decarbonization of the building stock in this paper focusing the single-family house sector in Germany is essential to achieve the climate goals. In fact as the largest part of the building stock it represents more than 65 % of the entire German residential building stock. Current strategies and regulations have demonstrated low impact on carbon emission reduction due to poor renovation rates particularly in the single-family house typology. The present study analyzes the potential of carbon emission reduction prioritizing local renewable energy generation and storage in combination with improved building energy systems. Through a simulation-based approach it considers reference buildings of different age classes and formulates variants for improving strategies with different levels of retrofit under the premise of a fully renewable locally generated energy supply. Based on the potential for solar energy supply the variants consider the seasonal shift that needs to be stored and particularly the role of hydrogen as an energy storage medium. The study´s goal is quantifying the impacts of the local renewable energy production its required storage capacity depending on the retrofit depth both for estimating the potential of transforming the single-family house stock to net zero carbon emissions.
Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES) Integrated into the Hydrogen Economy - Techno-economic Optimization of Waste Cold Recovery from Liquid Hydrogen Regasification
Jul 2025
Publication
A liquid air energy storage (LAES) system is a promising Carnot battery configuration capable of efficiently recovering waste heat and cold energy carriers. Among these liquid hydrogen (LH₂) regasification presents a significant opportunity due to its high exergy content and its regasification temperature which aligns well with the liquid air liquefaction process. While most existing studies focus on integrating LAES with liquid natural gas (LNG) regasification or improving hydrogen liquefaction via liquid air regasification this work takes a novel approach by enhancing liquid air liquefaction through the utilization of waste cold from LH₂ regasification. Additionally this study explores an economic innovation the valorization of clean dry air discharged by LAES which has not been extensively examined in prior literature. A novel LAES configuration is proposed and subjected to a techno-economic analysis comparing its performance with a stand-alone LAES system. Results show that the proposed integration increases round-trip efficiency by 15 % reduces the levelized cost of storage by 60 % and achieves a payback period of under 10 years. These findings provide valuable insights for both academia and industry advancing the development of more efficient and economically viable LAES systems.
Closed Loop Model Predictive Control of a Hybrid Battery-Hydrogen Energy Storage System using Mixed-Integer Linear Programming
Mar 2024
Publication
The derivation of an efficient operational strategy for storing intermittent renewable energies using a hybrid battery-hydrogen energy storage system is a difficult task. One approach for deriving an efficient operational strategy is using mathematical optimization in the context of model predictive control. However mathematical optimization derives an operational strategy based on a non-exact mathematical system representation for a specified prediction horizon to optimize a specified target. Thus the resulting operational strategies can vary depending on the optimization settings. This work focuses on evaluating potential improvements in the operational strategy for a hybrid batteryhydrogen energy storage system using mathematical optimization. To investigate the operation a simulation model of a hybrid energy storage system and a tailor-made mixed integer linear programming optimization model of this specific system are utilized in the context of a model predictive control framework. The resulting operational strategies for different settings of the model predictive control framework are compared to a rule-based controller to show the potential benefits of model predictive control compared to a conventional approach. Furthermore an in-depth analysis of different factors that impact the effectiveness of the model predictive controller is done. Therefore a sensitivity analysis of the effect of different electricity demands and resource sizes on the performance relative to a rule-based controller is conducted. The model predictive controller reduced the energy consumption by at least 3.9 % and up to 17.9% compared to a rule-based controller. Finally Pareto fronts for multi-objective optimizations with different prediction and control horizons are derived and compared to the results of a rule-based controller. A cost reduction of up to 47 % is achieved by a model predictive controller with a prediction horizon of 7 days and perfect foresight. Keywords: Model Predictive Control Optimization Mixed Integer Linear Programming Hybrid Battery-Hydrogen Energy Storage System
Regional Capabilities and Hydrogen Adoption Barriers
Dec 2023
Publication
Hydrogen is gaining importance to decarbonize the energy system and tackle the climate crisis. This exploratory study analyzes three focus groups with representatives from relevant organizations in a Northern German region that has unique beneficial characteristics for the transition to a hydrogen economy. Based upon this data (1) a category system of innovation adoption barriers for hydrogen technologies is developed (2) decision levels associated with the barriers are identified (3) detailed insights on how decision levels contribute to the adoption barriers are provided and (4) the barriers are evaluated in terms of their importance. Our analysis adds to existing literature by focusing on short-term barriers and exploring relevant decision levels and their associated adoption barriers. Our main results comprise the following: flaws in the funding system complex approval procedures lack of networks and high costs contribute to hydrogen adoption barriers. The (Sub-)State level is relevant for the uptake of the hydrogen economy. Regional entities have leeway to foster the hydrogen transition especially with respect to the distribution infrastructure. Funding policy technological suitability investment and operating costs and the availability of distribution infrastructure and technical components are highly important adoption barriers that alone can impede the transition to a hydrogen economy.
Environmental and Material Criticality Assessment of Hydrogen Production via Anion Exchange Membrane Electrolysis
Oct 2023
Publication
The need to drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions is driving the development of existing and new technologies to produce and use hydrogen. Anion exchange membrane electrolysis is one of these rapidly developing technologies and presents promising characteristics for efficient hydrogen production. However the environmental performance and the material criticality of anion exchange membrane electrolysis must be assessed. In this work prospective life cycle assessment and criticality assessment are applied first to identify environmental and material criticality hotspots within the production of anion exchange membrane electrolysis units and second to benchmark hydrogen production against proton exchange membrane electrolysis. From an environmental point of view the catalyst spraying process heavily dominates the ozone depletion impact category while the production of the membrane represents a hotspot in terms of the photochemical ozone formation potential. For the other categories the environmental impacts are distributed across different components. The comparison of hydrogen production via anion exchange membrane electrolysis and proton exchange membrane electrolysis shows that both technologies involve a similar life-cycle environmental profile due to similar efficiencies and the leading role of electricity generation for the operation of electrolysis. Despite the fact that for proton exchange membrane electrolysis much less material is required due to a higher lifetime anion exchange membrane electrolysis shows significantly lower raw material criticality since it does not rely on platinum-group metals. Overall a promising environmental and material criticality performance of anion exchange membrane electrolysis for hydrogen production is concluded subject to the expected technical progress for this technology.
Optimal Configuration of Hydrogen- and Battery-based Electric Bus Transit Systems
Feb 2025
Publication
Electric bus transit is crucial in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions decreasing fossil fuel reliance and combating climate change. However the transition to electric-powered buses demands a comprehensive plan for optimal resource allocation technology choice infrastructure deployment and component sizing. This study develops system configuration optimization models for battery electric buses (BEBs) and hydrogen fuel cell buses (HFCBs) minimizing all related costs (i.e. capital and operational costs). These models optimize component sizing of the charging/refueling stations fleet configuration and energy/fuel management system in three operational schemes: BEBs opportunity charging BEBs overnight charging and electrolysis-powered HFCBs overnight refueling. The results indicate that the BEB opportunity system is the most economically viable choice. Meanwhile HFCB requires a higher cost (134.5%) and produces more emissions (215.7%) than the BEB overnight charging system. A sensitivity analysis indicates that a significant reduction in the HFCB unit and electricity costs is required to compete economically with BEB systems.
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