Netherlands

A 100 MW stand-alone wind power to methanol process has been evaluated to determine the capital requirement and power to methanol efficiency. Power available for electrolysis determines the amount of hydrogen produced. The stoichiometric amount of CO₂– required for the methanol synthesis – is produced using direct air capture. Integration of utilities for CO₂ air capture hydrogen production from co-harvested water and methanol synthesis is incorporated and capital costs for all process steps are estimated. Power to methanol efficiency is determined to be around 50%. The cost of methanol is around 300€ ton−1 excluding and 800€ ton−1 including wind turbine capital cost. Excluding 300 M€ investment cost for 100 MW of wind turbines total plant capital cost is around 200 M€. About 45% of the capital cost is reserved for the electrolysers 50% for the CO₂ air capture installation and 5% for the methanol synthesis system. The conceptual design and evaluation shows that renewable methanol produced from air captured CO₂ water and renewable electricity is becoming a realistic option at reasonable costs of 750–800 € ton−1.

Tensile and fatigue tests were performed on an AA2198 aluminum alloy in the T851 condition in ambient air and liquid hydrogen (LH2). All fatigue tests were performed under load control at a frequency of 20 Hz and a stress ratio of R=0.1. The Gecks-Och-Function [1] was fitted on the measured cyclic lifetimes.<br/><br/>The tensile strength in LH2 was measured to be 46 % higher compared to the value determined at ambient conditions and the fatigue limit was increased by approximately 60 %. Both S-N curves show a distinct S-shape but also significant differences. Under LH2 environment the transition from LCF- to HCF-region as well as the transition to the fatigue limit is shifted to higher cyclic lifetimes compared to ambient test results. The investigation of the crack surfaces showed distinct differences between ambient and LH2 conditions. These observed differences are important factors in the fatigue behavior change.

A rapid transition towards a CO2-neutral steel industry is required to limit climate change. Such a transition raises questions of justice as it entails positive and negative impacts unevenly distributed across societal stakeholders. To enable stakeholders to address such concerns this paper assesses the justice implications of three options that reduce emissions: CO2 capture and storage (CCS) on steel (up to 70%) bio-based steelmaking (up to 50%) and green hydrogen-based steel production (up to 100%). We select justice indicators from the energy climate labour and environmental justice literature and assess these indicators qualitatively for each of the technological routes based on literature and desk research. We find context-dependent differences in justness between the different technological routes. The impact on stakeholders varies across regions. There are justice concerns for local communities because of economic dependence on and environmental impact of the industry. Communities elsewhere are impacted through the siting of infrastructure and feedstock production. CCS and bio-based steelmaking routes can help retain industry and associated economic benefits on location while hydrogen-based steelmaking may deal better with environmental concerns. We conclude that besides techno-economic and environmental information transparency on sector-specific justice implications of transforming steel industries is essential for decision-making on technological routes

Hydrogen fuelled vehicles can play a key role in the decarbonisation of transport and reducing emissions. To ensure the durability of fuel cells a specification has been developed (ISO 14687) setting upper limits to the amount fraction of a series of impurities. Demonstrating conformity with this standard requires demonstrating by measurement that the actual levels of the impurities are below the thresholds. Currently the industry is unable to do so for measurement standards and sensitive dedicated analytical methods are lacking. In this work we report on the development of such measurement standards and methods for four reactive components: formaldehyde formic acid hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride. The primary measurement standard is based on permeation and the analytical methods on highly sensitive and selective laser-based spectroscopic techniques. Relative expanded uncertainties at the ISO 14687 threshold level in hydrogen of 4% (formaldehyde) 8% (formic acid) 5% (hydrogen chloride) and 8% (hydrogen fluoride) have been achieved.

The design and operation of integrated multi-energy systems require models that adequately describe the behavior of conversion and storage technologies. Typically linear conversion performance or fixed data from technology manufacturers are employed especially for new or advanced technologies. This contribution provides a new modeling framework for electrochemical devices that bridges first-principles models to their simplified implementation in the optimization routine. First thermodynamic models are implemented to determine the on/off-design performance and dynamic behavior of different types of fuel cells and of electrolyzers. Then as such nonlinear models are intractable for use in the optimization of integrated systems different linear approximations are developed. The proposed strategies for the synthesis of reduced order models are compared to assess the impact of modeling approximations on the optimal design of multi-energy systems including fuel cells and electrolyzers. This allows to determine the most suitable level of detail for modeling the underlying electrochemical technologies from an integrated system perspective. It is found that the approximation methodology affects both the design and operation of the system with a significant effect on system costs and violation of the thermal energy demand. Finally the optimization and technology modeling framework is exploited to determine guidelines for the installation of the most suitable fuel cell technology in decentralized multi-energy systems. We show how the installation costs of PEMFC SOFC and MCFC their electrical and thermal efficiencies their conversion dynamics and the electricity price affect the system design and technology selection.

This paper presents the results of a demonstration project including building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) solar panels a residential building and a hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) for combined mobility and power generation aiming to achieve a net zero-energy residential building target. The experiment was conducted as part of the Car as Power Plant project at The Green Village in the Netherlands. The main objective was to assess the end-user’s potential of implementing FCEVs in vehicle-to-grid operation (FCEV2G) to act as a local energy source. FCEV2G field test performance with a Hyundai ix35 FCEV are presented. The car was adapted using a power output socket capable of delivering up to 10 kW direct current (DC) to the alternating current (AC) national grid when parked via an off-board (grid-tie) inverter. A Tank-To-AC-Grid efficiency (analogous to Tank- To-Wheel efficiency when driving) of 44% (measured on a Higher Heating Value basis) was obtained when the car was operating in vehicle-to-grid (V2G) mode at the maximum power output. By collecting and analysing real data on the FCEV power production in V2G mode and on BIPV production and household consumption two different operating modes for the FCEV offering balanced services to a residential microgrid were identified namely fixed power output and load following. Based on the data collected one-year simulations of a microgrid consisting of 10 all-electric dwellings and 5 cars with the different FCEV2G modes of operation were performed. Simulation results were evaluated on the factors of autonomy self-consumption of locally produced energy and net-energy consumption by implementing different energy indicators. The results show that utilizing an FCEV working in V2G mode can reduce the annual imported electricity from the grid by approximately 71% over one year and aiding the buildings in the microgrid to achieve a net zero-energy building target. Furthermore the simulation results show that utilizing the FCEV2G setup in both modes analysed could be economically beneficial for the end-user if hydrogen prices at the pump fall below 8.24 €/kg.

Photoelectrochemical splitting of water is potentially a sustainable and affordable solution to produce hydrogen from sun light. Given the infancy stage of technology development it is important to compare the different experimental concepts and identify the most promising routes. The performance of photoelectrochemical devices is typically measured and reported under ideal irradiation conditions i.e. 1 sun. However real-life operating conditions are very different and are varying in time according to daily and seasonal cycles. In this work we present an equivalent circuit model for computing the steady state performance of photoelectrochemical cells. The model allows for a computationally efficient yet precise prediction of the system performance and a comparison of different devices working in real operating conditions. To this end five different photo-electrochemical devices are modeled using experimental results from literature. The calculated performance shows good agreement with experimental data of the different devices. Furthermore the model is extended to include the effect of illumination and tilt angle on the hydrogen production efficiency. The resulting model is used to compare the devices for different locations with high and low average illumination and different tilt angles. The results show that including real illumination data has a considerable impact on the efficiency of the PV-EC device. The yearly average solar-to-hydrogen efficiency is significantly lower than the ideal one. Moreover it is dependent on the tilt angle whose optimal value for European-like latitude is around 40. Notably we also show that the most performing device through the whole year might not necessarily be the one with highest sun-to-hydrogen efficiency for one-sun illumination.

Rapid industrial development vehicles domestic activities and mishandling of garbage are the main sources of pollutants which are destroying the atmosphere. There is a need to continuously monitor these pollutants for the safety of the environment and human beings. Conventional instruments for monitoring of toxic gases are expensive bigger in size and time-consuming. Hybrid materials containing organic and inorganic components are considered potential candidates for diverse applications including gas sensing. Gas sensors convert the information regarding the analyte into signals. Various polymeric/inorganic nanohybrids have been used for the sensing of toxic gases. Composites of different polymeric materials like polyaniline (PANI) poly (4-styrene sulfonate) (PSS) poly (34-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT) etc. with various metal/metal oxide nanoparticles have been reported as sensing materials for gas sensors because of their unique redox features conductivity and facile operation at room temperature. Polymeric nanohybrids showed better performance because of the larger surface area of nanohybrids and the synergistic effect between polymeric and inorganic materials. This review article focuses on the recent developments of emerging polymeric/inorganic nanohybrids for sensing various toxic gases including ammonia hydrogen nitrogen dioxide carbon oxides and liquefied petroleum gas. Advantages disadvantages operating conditions and prospects of hybrid composites have also been discussed.

Long-haul heavy-duty vehicles including trucks and coaches contribute to a substantial portion of the modern-day European carbon footprint and pose a major challenge in emissions reduction due to their energy-intensive usage. Depending on the hydrogen fuel source the use of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) for long-haul applications has shown significant potential in reducing road freight CO2 emissions until the possible maturity of future long-distance battery-electric mobility. Fuel cell heavy-duty (HD) propulsion presents some specific characteristics advantages and operating constraints along with the notable possibility of gains in powertrain efficiency and usability through improved system design and intelligent onboard energy and thermal management. This paper provides an overview of the FCEV powertrain topology suited for long-haul HD applications their operating limitations cooling requirements waste heat recovery techniques state-of-the-art in powertrain control energy and thermal management strategies and over-the-air route data based predictive powertrain management including V2X connectivity. A case study simulation analysis of an HD 40-tonne FCEV truck is also presented focusing on the comparison of powertrain losses and energy expenditures in different subsystems while running on VECTO Regional delivery and Long-haul cycles. The importance of hydrogen fuel production pathways onboard storage approaches refuelling and safety standards and fleet management is also discussed. Through a comprehensive review of the H2 fuel cell powertrain technology intelligent energy management thermal management requirements and strategies and challenges in hydrogen production storage and refuelling this article aims at helping stakeholders in the promotion and integration of H2 FCEV technology towards road freight decarbonisation.

The deployment of low-emission alternative fuels is crucial to decarbonise the transport sector. A number of alternatives like hydrogen or dimethyl ether/methanol synthesised using CO2 as feedstock for fuel production (hereafter refer to “CO2-based fuels”) have been proposed to combat climate change. However the decarbonisation potential of CO2-based fuels is under debate because CO2 is re-emitted to the atmosphere when the fuel is combusted; and the majority of hydrogen still relies on fossil resources which makes its prospects of being a low-carbon fuel dependent on its manufacturing process. First this paper investigates the relative economic and environmental performance of hydrogen (produced from conventional steam methane reforming and produced via electrolysis using renewable energy) and CO2- based fuels (dimethyl ether and methanol) considering the full carbon cycle. The results reveal that hydrogen produced from steam methane reforming is the most economical option and that hydrogen produced via electrolysis using renewables has the best environmental profile. Whereas the idea of CO2-based fuels has recently gained much interest it has for the foreseeable future rather limited practical relevance since there is no favourable combination of cost and environmental performance. This will only change in the long run and requires that CO2 is of non-fossil origin i.e. from biomass combustion or captured from air. Second this paper address unresolved methodological issues in the assessment of CO2-based fuels such as the possible allocation of emissions to the different sectors involved. The outcomes indicate that implementing different allocation approaches substantially influences the carbon footprint of CO2-based fuels. To avoid allocation issues expanding the boundaries including the entire system and is therefore recommended.