Production & Supply Chain
A Comprehensive Review on the Power Supply System of Hydrogen Production Electrolyzers for Future Integrated Energy Systems
Feb 2024
Publication
Hydrogen energy is regarded as an ideal solution for addressing climate change issues and an indispensable part of future integrated energy systems. The most environmentally friendly hydrogen production method remains water electrolysis where the electrolyzer constructs the physical interface between electrical energy and hydrogen energy. However few articles have reviewed the electrolyzer from the perspective of power supply topology and control. This review is the first to discuss the positioning of the electrolyzer power supply in the future integrated energy system. The electrolyzer is reviewed from the perspective of the electrolysis method the market and the electrical interface modelling reflecting the requirement of the electrolyzer for power supply. Various electrolyzer power supply topologies are studied and reviewed. Although the most widely used topology in the current hydrogen production industry is still single-stage AC/DC the interleaved parallel LLC topology constructed by wideband gap power semiconductors and controlled by the zero-voltage switching algorithm has broad application prospects because of its advantages of high power density high efficiency fault tolerance and low current ripple. Taking into account the development trend of the EL power supply a hierarchical control framework is proposed as it can manage the operation performance of the power supply itself the electrolyzer the hydrogen energy domain and the entire integrated energy system.
Hydrogen Fuel Quality from Two Main Production Processes: Steam Methane Reforming and Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis
Oct 2019
Publication
Thomas Bacquart,
Karine Arrhenius,
Stefan Persijn,
Andrés Rojo,
Fabien Auprêtre,
Bruno Gozlan,
Abigail Morris,
Andreas Fischer,
Arul Murugan,
Sam Bartlett,
Niamh Moore,
Guillaume Doucet,
François Laridant,
Eric Gernot,
Teresa E. Fernandez,
Concepcion Gomez,
Martine Carré,
Guy De Reals and
Frédérique Haloua
The absence of contaminants in the hydrogen delivered at the hydrogen refuelling station is critical to ensure the length life of FCEV. Hydrogen quality has to be ensured according to the two international standards ISO 14687–2:2012 and ISO/DIS 19880-8. Amount fraction of contaminants from the two hydrogen production processes steam methane reforming and PEM water electrolyser is not clearly documented. Twenty five different hydrogen samples were taken and analysed for all contaminants listed in ISO 14687-2. The first results of hydrogen quality from production processes: PEM water electrolysis with TSA and SMR with PSA are presented. The results on more than 16 different plants or occasions demonstrated that in all cases the 13 compounds listed in ISO 14687 were below the threshold of the international standards. Several contaminated hydrogen samples demonstrated the needs for validated and standardised sampling system and procedure. The results validated the probability of contaminants presence proposed in ISO/DIS 19880-8. It will support the implementation of ISO/ DIS 19880-8 and the development of hydrogen quality control monitoring plan. It is recommended to extend the study to other production method (i.e. alkaline electrolysis) the HRS supply chain (i.e. compressor) to support the technology growth.
Suitability and Energy Sustainability of Atmospheric Water Generation Technology for Green Hydrogen Production
Sep 2023
Publication
This research investigated the suitability of air-to-water generator (AWG) technology to address one of the main concerns in green hydrogen production namely water supply. This study specifically addresses water quality and energy sustainability issues which are crucial research questions when AWG technology is intended for electrolysis. To this scope a reasoned summary of the main findings related to atmospheric water quality has been provided. Moreover several experimental chemical analyses specifically focused on meeting electrolysis process requirements on water produced using a real integrated AWG system equipped with certified materials for food contact were discussed. To assess the energy sustainability of AWGs in green hydrogen production a case study was presented regarding an electrolyzer plant intended to serve as energy storage for a 2 MW photovoltaic field on Iriomote Island. The integrated AWG used for the water quality analyses was studied in order to determine its performance in the specific island climate conditions. The production exceeded the needs of the electrolyzer; thus the overproduction was considered for the panels cleaning due to the high purity of the water. Due to such an operation the efficiency recovery was more than enough to cover the AWG energy consumption. This paper on the basis of the quantity results provides the first answers to the said research questions concerning water quality and energy consumption establishing the potential of AWG as a viable solution for addressing water scarcity and enhancing the sustainability of electrolysis processes in green hydrogen production.
Upcycling of Plastic Wastes for Hydrogen Production: Advances and Perspectives
Feb 2024
Publication
The abundant plastic wastes become an imperative global issue and how to handle these organic wastes gains growing scientific and industrial interest. Recently converting plastic wastes into hydrogen fuel has been investigated and the “waste-to-value” practice accelerates the circular economy. To accelerate the development of plastic-to-hydrogen conversion in this review recent advances in plastic-to-hydrogen conversion via thermochemical photocatalytic and electrocatalytic routes are analyzed. All of the thermo- photo- and electrochemical processes can transform different plastic wastes into hydrogen and the hydrogen production efficiency depends heavily on the selected techniques operating parameters and applied catalysts. The application of rational-designed catalysts can promote the selective production of hydrogen from plastic feedstocks. Further studies on process optimization cost-effective catalyst design and mechanism investigation are needed.
An Experimental Investigation of Hydrogen Production through Biomass Electrolysis
Jan 2024
Publication
This work investigated hydrogen production from biomass feedstocks (i.e. glucose starch lignin and cellulose) using a 100 mL h-type proton exchange membrane electrolysis cell. Biomass electrolysis is a promising process for hydrogen production although low in technology readiness level but with a series of recognised advantages: (i) lower-temperature conditions (compared to thermochemical processes) (ii) minimal energy consumption and low-cost post-production (iii) potential to synthesise high-volume H2 and (iv) smaller carbon footprint compared to thermochemical processes. A Lewis acid (FeCl3 ) was employed as a charge carrier and redox medium to aid in the depolymerisation/oxidation of biomass components. A comprehensive analysis was conducted measuring the H2 and CO2 emission volume and performing electrochemical analysis (i.e. linear sweep voltammetry and chronoamperometry) to better understand the process. For the first time the influence of temperature on current density and H2 evolution was studied at temperatures ranging from ambient temperature (i.e. 19 ◦C) to 80 ◦C. The highest H2 volume was 12.1 mL which was produced by FeCl3 -mediated electrolysis of glucose at ambient temperature which was up to two times higher than starch lignin and cellulose at 1.20 V. Of the substrates examined glucose also showed a maximum power-to-H2 -yield ratio of 30.99 kWh/kg. The results showed that hydrogen can be produced from biomass feedstock at ambient temperature when a Lewis acid (FeCl3 ) is employed and with a higher yield rate and a lower electricity consumption compared to water electrolysis.
A Comparative Analysis of Different Hydrogen Production Methods and Their Environmental Impact
Nov 2023
Publication
This study emphasises the growing relevance of hydrogen as a green energy source in meeting the growing need for sustainable energy solutions. It foregrounds the importance of assessing the environmental consequences of hydrogen-generating processes for their long-term viability. The article compares several hydrogen production processes in terms of scalability costeffectiveness and technical improvements. It also investigates the environmental effects of each approach considering crucial elements such as greenhouse gas emissions water use land needs and waste creation. Different industrial techniques have distinct environmental consequences. While steam methane reforming is cost-effective and has a high production capacity it is coupled with large carbon emissions. Electrolysis a technology that uses renewable resources is appealing but requires a lot of energy. Thermochemical and biomass gasification processes show promise for long-term hydrogen generation but further technological advancement is required. The research investigates techniques for improving the environmental friendliness of hydrogen generation through the use of renewable energy sources. Its ultimate purpose is to offer readers a thorough awareness of the environmental effects of various hydrogen generation strategies allowing them to make educated judgements about ecologically friendly ways. It can ease the transition to a cleaner hydrogen-powered economy by considering both technological feasibility and environmental issues enabling a more ecologically conscious and climate-friendly energy landscape.
CFD Modeling and Experimental Validation of an Alkaline Water Electrolysis Cell for Hydrogen Production
Dec 2020
Publication
Although alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) is the most widespread technology for hydrogen production by electrolysis its electrochemical and fluid dynamic optimization has rarely been addressed simultaneously using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation. In this regard a two-dimensional (2D) CFD model of an AWE cell has been developed using COMSOL® software and then experimentally validated. The model involves transport equations for both liquid and gas phases as well as equations for the electric current conservation. This multiphysics approach allows the model to simultaneously analyze the fluid dynamic and electrochemical phenomena involved in an electrolysis cell. The electrical response was evaluated in terms of polarization curve (voltage vs. current density) at different operating conditions: temperature electrolyte conductivity and electrode-diaphragm distance. For all cases the model fits very well with the experimental data with an error of less than 1% for the polarization curves. Moreover the model successfully simulates the changes on gas profiles along the cell according to current density electrolyte flow rate and electrode-diaphragm distance. The combination of electrochemical and fluid dynamics studies provides comprehensive information and makes the model a promising tool for electrolysis cell design.
Assessment of Wind Energy Potential for the Production of Renewable Hydrogen in Sindh Province of Pakistan
Apr 2019
Publication
In this study we developed a new hybrid mathematical model that combines wind-speed range with the log law to derive the wind energy potential for wind-generated hydrogen production in Pakistan. In addition we electrolyzed wind-generated power in order to assess the generation capacity of wind-generated renewable hydrogen. The advantage of the Weibull model is that it more accurately reflects power generation potential (i.e. the capacity factor). When applied to selected sites we have found commercially viable hydrogen production capacity in all locations. All sites considered had the potential to produce an excess amount of wind-generated renewable hydrogen. If the total national capacity of wind-generated was used Pakistan could conceivably produce 51917000.39 kg per day of renewable hydrogen. Based on our results we suggest that cars and other forms of transport could be fueled with hydrogen to conserve oil and gas resources which can reduce the energy shortfall and contribute to the fight against climate change and global warming. Also hydrogen could be used to supplement urban energy needs (e.g. for Sindh province Pakistan) again reducing energy shortage effects and supporting green city programs.
Optimal Parameter Determination of Membrane Bioreactor to Boost Biohydrogen Production-Based Integration of ANFIS Modeling and Honey Badger Algorithm
Jan 2023
Publication
Hydrogen is a new promising energy source. Three operating parameters including inlet gas flow rate pH and impeller speed mainly determine the biohydrogen production from membrane bioreactor. The work aims to boost biohydrogen production by determining the optimal values of the control parameters. The proposed methodology contains two parts: modeling and parameter estimation. A robust ANIFS model to simulate a membrane bioreactor has been constructed for the modeling stage. Compared with RMS thanks to ANFIS the RMSE decreased from 2.89 using ANOVA to 0.0183 using ANFIS. Capturing the proper correlation between the inputs and output of the membrane bioreactor process system encourages the constructed ANFIS model to predict the output performance exactly. Then the optimal operating parameters were identified using the honey badger algorithm. During the optimization process inlet gas flow rate pH and impeller speed are used as decision variables whereas the biohydrogen production is the objective function required to be maximum. The integration between ANFIS and HBA boosted the hydrogen production yield from 23.8 L to 25.52 L increasing by 7.22%.
A Short Review on Ni Based Catalysts and Related Engineering Issues for Methane Steam Reforming
Mar 2020
Publication
Hydrogen is an important raw material in chemical industries and the steam reforming of light hydrocarbons (such as methane) is the most used process for its production. In this process the use of a catalyst is mandatory and if compared to precious metal-based catalysts Ni-based catalysts assure an acceptable high activity and a lower cost. The aim of a distributed hydrogen production for example through an on-site type hydrogen station is only reachable if a novel reforming system is developed with some unique properties that are not present in the large-scale reforming system. These properties include among the others (i) daily startup and shutdown (DSS) operation ability (ii) rapid response to load fluctuation (iii) compactness of device and (iv) excellent thermal exchange. In this sense the catalyst has an important role. There is vast amount of information in the literature regarding the performance of catalysts in methane steam reforming. In this short review an overview on the most recent advances in Ni based catalysts for methane steam reforming is given also regarding the use of innovative structured catalysts.
Palladium-alloy Membrane Reactors for Fuel Reforming and Hydrogen Production: Hydrogen Production Modelling
Jul 2023
Publication
Endeavors have recently been concentrated on minimizing the dependency on fossil fuels in order to mitigate the ever-increasing problem of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Hydrogen energy is regarded as an alternative to fossil fuels due to its cleaner emission attributes. Reforming of hydrocarbon fuels is amongst the most popular and widely used methods for hydrogen production. Hydrogen produced from reforming processes requires additional processes to separate from the reformed gases. In some cases further purification of hydrogen has to be carried out to use the hydrogen in power generation applications. Metallic membranes especially palladium (Pd)-based ones have demonstrated sustainable hydrogen separation potential with around 99.99% hydrogen purity. Comprehensive and critical research investigations must be performed to optimize membrane-assisted reforming as well as to maximize the production of hydrogen. The computational fluid dynamic (CFD) can be an excellent tool to analyze and visualize the flow/reaction/permeation mechanisms at a lower cost in contrast with the experiments. In order to provide the necessary background knowledge on membrane reactor modeling this study reviews summarizes and analyses the kinetics of different fuel reforming processes equations to determine hydrogen permeation and lastly various geometry and operating condition adopted in the literature associated with membrane-reactor modeling works. It is indicated that hydrogen permeation through Pd-membranes depends highly on the difference in hydrogen pressure. It is found that hydrogen permeation can be improved by employing different pressure configuration introducing sweep flow on the permeate side of the membrane reducing retentate side flow rate and increasing the temperature.
Optimal Siting and Sizing of Hydrogen Production Modules in Distribution Networks with Photovoltaic Uncertainties
Nov 2023
Publication
Hydrogen production modules (HPMs) play a crucial role in harnessing abundant photovoltaic power by producing and supplying hydrogen to factories resulting in significant operational cost reductions and efficient utilization of the photovoltaic panel output. However the output of photovoltaic power is stochastic which will affect the revenue of investing in an HPM. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of HPMs starting with the modeling of their operational process and investigating their influence on distribution system operations. Building upon these discussions a deterministic optimization model is established to address the corresponding challenges. Furthermore a two-stage stochastic planning model is proposed to determine optimal locations and sizes of HPMs in distribution systems accounting for uncertainties. The objective of the twostage stochastic planning model is to minimize the distribution system’s operational costs plus the investment costs of the HPM subject to power flow constraints. To tackle the stochastic nature of photovoltaic power a data-driven algorithm is introduced to cluster historical data into representative scenarios effectively reducing the planning model’s scale. To ensure an efficient solution a Benders’ decomposition-based algorithm is proposed which is an iterative method with a fast convergence speed. The proposed model and algorithms are validated using a widely utilized IEEE 33-bus system through numerical experiments demonstrating the optimality of the HPM plan generated by the algorithm. The proposed model and algorithms offer an effective approach for decision-makers in managing uncertainties and optimizing HPM deployment paving the way for sustainable and efficient energy solutions in distribution systems. Sensitivity analysis verifies the optimality of the HPM’s siting and sizing obtained by the proposed algorithm which also reveals immense economic and environmental benefits.
Effects of Surface Modification on a Proton Exchange Membrane for Improvements in Green Hydrogen Production
Oct 2023
Publication
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolysis an advanced technique for producing hydrogen with efficiency and environmental friendliness signifies the forefront of progress in this domain. Compared to alkaline cells these electrolytic cells offer numerous advantages such as lower operating temperatures enhanced hydrogen production efficiency and eliminating the need for an aqueous solution. However PEM electrolysis still faces limitations due to the high cost of materials used for the membrane and catalysts resulting in elevated expenses for implementing large-scale systems. The pivotal factor in improving PEM electrolysis lies in the Platinum catalyst present on the membrane surface. Enhancing catalytic efficiency through various methods and advancements holds immense significance for the progress of this technology. This study investigates the use of patterned membranes to improve the performance of PEM electrolytic cells toward green hydrogen production. By increasing the Platinum loading across the membrane surface and enhancing catalytic performance these patterned membranes overcome challenges faced by conventionally fabricated counterparts. The findings of this research indicate that membranes with modified surfaces not only exhibit higher current draw but also achieve elevated rates of hydrogen production.
Review of Next Generation Hydrogen Production from Offshore Wind Using Water Electrolysis
Dec 2023
Publication
Hydrogen produced using renewable energy from offshore wind provides a versatile method of energy storage and power-to-gas concepts. However few dedicated floating offshore electrolyser facilities currently exist and therefore conditions of the offshore environment on hydrogen production cost and efficiency remain uncertain. Therefore this review focuses on the conversion of electrical energy to hydrogen using water electrolysis located in offshore areas. The challenges associated with the remote locations fluctuating power and harsh conditions are highlighted and recommendations for future electrolysis system designs are suggested. The latest research in polymer electrolyte membrane alkaline and membraneless electrolysis are evaluated in order to understand their capital costs efficiency and current research status for achieving scaled manufacturing to the GW scale required in the next three decades. Operating fundamentals that govern the performance of each device are investigated and future recommendations of research specifically for the integration of water electrolysers with offshore wind turbines is presented.
Experimental Evaluation of Dynamic Operating Concepts for Alkaline Water Electrolyzers Powered by Renewable Energy
Dec 2021
Publication
Synthetic current density profiles with wind and photovoltaic power characteristics were calculated by autoregressive-moving-average (ARMA) models for the experimental evaluation of dynamic operating concepts for alkaline water electrolyzers powered by renewable energy. The selected operating concepts included switching between mixed and split electrolyte cycles and adapting the liquid electrolyte volume flow rate depending on the current density. All experiments were carried out at a pressure of 7 bar a temperature of 60 °C and with an aqueous potassium hydroxide solution with 32 wt.% KOH as the electrolyte. The dynamic operating concepts were compared to stationary experiments with mixed electrolyte cycles and the experimental evaluation showed that the selected operating concepts were able to reduce the gas impurity compared to the reference operating conditions without a noticeable increase of the cell potential. Therefore the overall system efficiency and process safety could be enhanced by this approach.
Techno-economic Analysis of the Effect of a Novel Price-based Control System on the Hydrogen Production of an Offshore 1.5 GW Wind-hydrogen System
Feb 2024
Publication
The cost of green hydrogen production is very dependent on the price of electricity. A control system that can schedule hydrogen production based on forecast wind speed and electricity price should therefore be advantageous for large-scale wind-hydrogen systems. This work presents a novel price-based control system integrated in a techno-economic analysis of hydrogen production from offshore wind. A polynomial regression model that predicts wind power production from wind speed input was developed and tested with real-world datasets from a 2.3 MW floating offshore wind turbine. This was combined with a mathematical model of a PEM electrolyzer and used to simulate hydrogen production. A novel price-based control system was developed to decide when the system should produce hydrogen and when it should sell electricity to the grid. The model and control system can be used in real-world wind-hydrogen systems and require only the forecast wind speed electricity price and selling price of hydrogen as inputs. 11 test scenarios based on 10 years of real-world wind speed and electricity price data are proposed and used to evaluate the effect the price-based control system has on the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH). Both current and future (2050) costs and technologies are used and the results show that the novel control system lowered the LCOH in all scenarios by 10–46%. The lowest LCOH achieved with current technology and costs was 6.04 $/kg H2. Using the most optimistic forecasts for technology improvements and cost reductions in 2050 the model estimated a LCOH of 0.96 $/kg H2 for a grid-connected offshore wind farm and onshore hydrogen production 0.82 $/kg H2 using grid electricity (onshore) and 4.96 $/kg H2 with an offgrid offshore wind-hydrogen system. When the electricity price from the period 2013–2022 was used on the 2050 scenarios the resulting LCOH was approximately twice as high.
Phasing Out Steam Methane Reformers with Water Electrolysis in Producing Renewable Hydrogen and Ammonia: A Case Study Based on the Spanish Energy Markets
Jul 2023
Publication
Deploying renewable hydrogen presents a significant challenge in accessing off-takers who are willing to make long-term investments. To address this challenge current projects focus on large-scale deployment to replace the demand for non-renewable hydrogen particularly in ammonia synthesis for fertiliser production plants. The traditional process involving Steam Methane Reformers (SMR) connected to Haber-Bosch synthesis could potentially transition towards decarbonisation by gradually integrating water electrolysis. However the coexistence of these processes poses limitations in accommodating the integration of renewable hydrogen thereby creating operational challenges for industrial hubs. To tackle this issue this paper proposes an optimal dispatch model for producing green hydrogen and ammonia while considering the coexistence of different processes. Furthermore the objective is to analyse external factors that could determine the appropriate regulatory and pricing framework to facilitate the phase-out of SMR in favour of renewable hydrogen production. The paper presents a case study based in Spain utilising data from 2018 2022 and 2030 perspectives on the country's renewable resources gas and electricity wholesale markets pricing ranges and regulatory constraints to validate the model. The findings indicate that carbon emissions taxation and the availability and pricing of Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) will play crucial roles in this transition - the carbon emission price required for total phasing out SMR with water electrolysis would be around 550 EUR/ton CO2.
Economic Evaluation and Technoeconomic Resilience Analysis of Two Routes for Hydrogen Production via Indirect Gasification in North Colombia
Nov 2023
Publication
Hydrogen has become a prospective energy carrier for a cleaner more sustainable economy offering carbon-free energy to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and address climate change challenges. However hydrogen production faces significant technological and economic hurdles that must be overcome to reveal its highest potential. This study focused on evaluating the economics and technoeconomic resilience of two large-scale hydrogen production routes from African palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) by indirect gasification. Computer-aided process engineering (CAPE) assessed multiple scenarios to identify bottlenecks and optimize economic performance indicators like gross profits including depreciation after-tax profitability payback period and net present value. Resilience for each route was also assessed considering raw material costs and the market price of hydrogen in relation to gross profits and after-tax profitability. Route 1 achieved a gross profit (DGP) of USD 47.12 million and a profit after taxes (PAT) of USD 28.74 million while Route 2 achieved a DGP of USD 46.53 million and a PAT of USD 28.38 million. The results indicated that Route 2 involving hydrogen production through an indirect gasification reactor with a Selexol solvent unit for carbon dioxide removal demonstrated greater resilience in terms of raw material costs and product selling price.
Large-Scale Hydrogen Production Systems Using Marine Renewable Energies: State-of-the-Art
Dec 2023
Publication
To achieve a more ecologically friendly energy transition by the year 2050 under the European “green” accord hydrogen has recently gained significant scientific interest due to its efficiency as an energy carrier. This paper focuses on large-scale hydrogen production systems based on marine renewable-energy-based wind turbines and tidal turbines. The paper reviews the different technologies of hydrogen production using water electrolyzers energy storage unit base hydrogen vectors and fuel cells (FC). The focus is on large-scale hydrogen production systems using marine renewable energies. This study compares electrolyzers energy storage units and FC technologies with the main factors considered being cost sustainability and efficiency. Furthermore a review of aging models of electrolyzers and FCs based on electrical circuit models is drawn from the literature and presented including characterization methods of the model components and the parameters extraction methods using a dynamic current profile. In addition industrial projects for producing hydrogen from renewable energies that have already been completed or are now in progress are examined. The paper is concluded through a summary of recent hydrogen production and energy storage advances as well as some applications. Perspectives on enhancing the sustainability and efficiency of hydrogen production systems are also proposed and discussed. This paper provides a review of behavioral aging models of electrolyzers and FCs when integrated into hydrogen production systems as this is crucial for their successful deployment in an ever-changing energy context. We also review the EU’s potential for renewable energy analysis. In summary this study provides valuable information for research and industry stakeholders aiming to promote a sustainable and environmentally friendly energy transition.
Offshore Green Hydrogen Production from Wind Energy: Critical Review and Perspective
Feb 2024
Publication
Hydrogen is envisaged to play a major role in decarbonizing our future energy systems. Hydrogen is ideal for storing renewable energy over longer durations strengthening energy security. It can be used to provide electricity renewable heat power long-haul transport shipping and aviation and in decarbonizing several industrial processes. The cost of green hydrogen produced from renewable via electrolysis is dominated by the cost of electricity used. Operating electrolyzers only during periods of low electricity prices will limit production capacity and underutilize high investment costs in electrolyzer plants. Hydrogen production from deep offshore wind energy is a promising solution to unlock affordable electrolytic hydrogen at scale. Deep offshore locations can result in an increased capacity factor of generated wind power to 60–70% 4–5 times that of onshore locations. Dedicated wind farms for electrolysis can use the majority >80% of the produced energy to generate economical hydrogen. In some scenarios hydrogen can be the optimal carrier to transport the generated energy onshore. This review discusses the opportunities and challenges in offshore hydrogen production using electrolysis from wind energy and seawater. This includes the impact of site selection size of the electrolyzer and direct use of seawater without deionization. The review compares overall electrolysis system efficiency cost and lifetime when operating with direct seawater feed and deionized water feed using reverse osmosis and flash evaporation systems. In the short to medium term it is advised to install a reverse osmosis plant with an ion exchanger to feed the electrolysis instead of using seawater directly.
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