Finland
Reduction in Greenhouse Gas and Other Emissions from Ship Engines: Current Trends and Future Options
Nov 2022
Publication
The impact of ship emission reductions can be maximised by considering climate health and environmental effects simultaneously and using solutions fitting into existing marine engines and infrastructure. Several options available enable selecting optimum solutions for different ships routes and regions. Carbon-neutral fuels including low-carbon and carbon-negative fuels from biogenic or non-biogenic origin (biomass waste renewable hydrogen) could resemble current marine fuels (diesel-type methane and methanol). The carbon-neutrality of fuels depends on their Well-to-Wake (WtW) emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) including carbon dioxide (CO2) methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide emissions (N2O). Additionally non-gaseous black carbon (BC) emissions have high global warming potential (GWP). Exhaust emissions which are harmful to health or the environment need to be equally removed using emission control achieved by fuel engine or exhaust aftertreatment technologies. Harmful emission species include nitrogen oxides (NOx) sulphur oxides (SOx) ammonia (NH3) formaldehyde particle mass (PM) and number emissions (PN). Particles may carry polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals which cause serious adverse health issues. Carbon-neutral fuels are typically sulphur-free enabling negligible SOx emissions and efficient exhaust aftertreatment technologies such as particle filtration. The combinations of carbon-neutral drop-in fuels and efficient emission control technologies would enable (near-)zero-emission shipping and these could be adaptable in the short- to mid-term. Substantial savings in external costs on society caused by ship emissions give arguments for regulations policies and investments needed to support this development.
Operation of Power-to-X-Related Processes Based on Advanced Data-Driven Methods: A Comprehensive Review
Oct 2022
Publication
This study is a systematic analysis of selected research articles about power-to-X (P2X)- related processes. The relevance of this resides in the fact that most of the world’s energy is produced using fossil fuels which has led to a huge amount of greenhouse gas emissions that are the source of global warming. One of the most supported actions against such a phenomenon is to employ renewable energy resources some of which are intermittent such as solar and wind. This brings the need for large-scale longer-period energy storage solutions. In this sense the P2X process chain could play this role: renewable energy can be converted into storable hydrogen chemicals and fuels via electrolysis and subsequent synthesis with CO2. The main contribution of this study is to provide a systematic articulation of advanced data-driven methods and latest technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) big data analytics and machine learning for the efficient operation of P2X-related processes. We summarize our findings into different working architectures and illustrate them with a numerical result that employs a machine learning model using historic data to define operational parameters for a given P2X process.
Deep Decarbonisation Pathways of the Energy System in Times of Unprecedented Uncertainty in the Energy Sector
May 2023
Publication
Unprecedented investments in clean energy technology are required for a net-zero carbon energy system before temperatures breach the Paris Agreement goals. By performing a Monte-Carlo Analysis with the detailed ETSAPTIAM Integrated Assessment Model and by generating 4000 scenarios of the world’s energy system climate and economy we find that the uncertainty surrounding technology costs resource potentials climate sensitivity and the level of decoupling between energy demands and economic growth influence the efficiency of climate policies and accentuate investment risks in clean energy technologies. Contrary to other studies relying on exploring the uncertainty space via model intercomparison we find that the CO2 emissions and CO2 prices vary convexly and nonlinearly with the discount rate and climate sensitivity over time. Accounting for this uncertainty is important for designing climate policies and carbon prices to accelerate the transition. In 70% of the scenarios a 1.5 ◦C temperature overshoot was within this decade calling for immediate policy action. Delaying this action by ten years may result in 2 ◦C mitigation costs being similar to those required to reach the 1.5 ◦C target if started today with an immediate peak in emissions a larger uncertainty in the medium-term horizon and a higher effort for net-zero emissions.
Numerical Study on Hydrogen–Gasoline Dual-Fuel Spark Ignition Engine
Nov 2022
Publication
Hydrogen as a suitable and clean energy carrier has been long considered a primary fuel or in combination with other conventional fuels such as gasoline and diesel. Since the density of hydrogen is very low in port fuel-injection configuration the engine’s volumetric efficiency reduces due to the replacement of hydrogen by intake air. Therefore hydrogen direct in-cylinder injection (injection after the intake valve closes) can be a suitable solution for hydrogen utilization in spark ignition (SI) engines. In this study the effects of hydrogen direct injection with different hydrogen energy shares (HES) on the performance and emissions characteristics of a gasoline port-injection SI engine are investigated based on reactive computational fluid dynamics. Three different injection timings of hydrogen together with five different HES are applied at low and full load on a hydrogen– gasoline dual-fuel SI engine. The results show that retarded hydrogen injection timing increases the concentration of hydrogen near the spark plug resulting in areas with higher average temperatures which led to NOX emission deterioration at −120 Crank angle degree After Top Dead Center (CAD aTDC) start of injection (SOI) compared to the other modes. At −120 CAD aTDC SOI for 50% HES the amount of NOX was 26% higher than −140 CAD aTDC SOI. In the meanwhile an advanced hydrogen injection timing formed a homogeneous mixture of hydrogen which decreased the HC and soot concentration so that −140 CAD aTDC SOI implied the lowest amount of HC and soot. Moreover with the increase in the amount of HES the concentrations of CO CO2 and soot were reduced. Having the HES by 50% at −140 CAD aTDC SOI the concentrations of particulate matter (PM) CO and CO2 were reduced by 96.3% 90% and 46% respectively. However due to more complete combustion and an elevated combustion average temperature the amount of NOX emission increased drastically.
Use of Existing Gas Infrastructure in European Hydrogen Economy
Apr 2023
Publication
The rapidly increasing production volume of clean hydrogen creates challenges for transport infrastructure. This study improves understanding of hydrogen transport options in Europe and provides more detailed analysis on the prospects for hydrogen transport in Finland. Previous studies and ongoing pipeline projects were reviewed to identify potential and barriers to hydrogen transport. A fatigue life assessment tool was built because material challenges have been one of the main concerns of hydrogen transportation. Many European countries aim at utilizing existing gas infrastructure for hydrogen. Conducted studies and pilot facilities have provided promising results. Hydrogen reduces the fatigue life of the pipeline but existing pipelines can be used for hydrogen if pressure variation is maintained at a reasonable level and the maximum operation pressure is limited. Moreover the use of existing pipelines can reduce hydrogen transport costs but the suitability of every pipeline for hydrogen must be analyzed and several issues such as leakage leakage detection effects of hydrogen on pipeline assets and end users corrosion maintenance and metering of gas flow must be considered. The development of hydrogen transport will vary within countries depending on the structure of the existing gas infrastructure and on the future hydrogen use profile.
A Multicriteria Modeling Approach for Evaluating Power Generation Scenarios Under Uncertainty: The Case of Green Hydrogen in Greece
Oct 2023
Publication
Clean energy technological innovations are widely acknowledged as a prerequisite to achieving ambitious longterm energy and climate targets. However the optimal speed of their adoption has been parsimoniously studied in the literature. This study seeks to identify the optimal intensity of moving to a green hydrogen electricity sector in Greece using the OSeMOSYS energy modeling framework. Green hydrogen policies are evaluated first on the basis of their robustness against uncertainty and afterwards against conflicting performance criteria and for different decision-making profiles towards risk by applying the VIKOR and TOPSIS multi-criteria decision aid methods. Although our analysis focuses exclusively on the power sector and compares different rates of hydrogen penetration compared to a business-as-usual case without considering other game-changing innovations (such as other types of storage or carbon capture and storage) we find that a national transition to a green hydrogen economy can support Greece in potentially cutting at least 16 MtCO2 while stimulating investments of EUR 10–13 bn. over 2030–2050.
Cost Benefits of Optimizing Hydrogen Storage and Methanation Capacities for Power-to-Gas Plants in Dynamic Operation
Oct 2019
Publication
Power-to-Gas technologies offer a promising approach for converting renewable electricity into a molecular form (fuel) to serve the energy demands of non-electric energy applications in all end-use sectors. The technologies have been broadly developed and are at the edge of a mass roll-out. The barriers that Power-to-Gas faces are no longer technical but are foremost regulatory and economic. This study focuses on a Power-to-Gas pathway where electricity is first converted in a water electrolyzer into hydrogen which is then synthetized with carbon dioxide to produce synthetic natural gas. A key aspect of this pathway is that an intermittent electricity supply could be used which could reduce the amount of electricity curtailment from renewable energy generation. Interim storages would then be necessary to decouple the synthesized part from hydrogen production to enable (I) longer continuous operation cycles for the methanation reactor and (II) increased annual full-load hours leading to an overall reduction in gas production costs. This work optimizes a Power-to-Gas plant configuration with respect to the cost benefits using a Monte Carlo-based simulation tool. The results indicate potential cost reductions of up to 17% in synthetic natural gas production by implementing well-balanced components and interim storages. This study also evaluates three different power sources which differ greatly in their optimal system configuration. Results from time-resolved simulations and sensitivity analyses for different plant designs and electricity sources are discussed with respect to technical and economic implications so as to facilitate a plant design process for decision makers.
A General Vision for Reduction of Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions from the Steel Industry
Aug 2020
Publication
The 2018 IPCC (The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s) report defined the goal to limit global warming to 1.5 ◦C by 2050. This will require “rapid and far-reaching transitions in land energy industry buildings transport and cities”. The challenge falls on all sectors especially energy production and industry. In this regard the recent progress and future challenges of greenhouse gas emissions and energy supply are first briefly introduced. Then the current situation of the steel industry is presented. Steel production is predicted to grow by 25–30% by 2050. The dominant iron-making route blast furnace (BF) especially is an energy-intensive process based on fossil fuel consumption; the steel sector is thus responsible for about 7% of all anthropogenic CO2 emissions. In order to take up the 2050 challenge emissions should see significant cuts. Correspondingly specific emissions (t CO2/t steel) should be radically decreased. Several large research programs in big steelmaking countries and the EU have been carried out over the last 10–15 years or are ongoing. All plausible measures to decrease CO2 emissions were explored here based on the published literature. The essential results are discussed and concluded. The specific emissions of “world steel” are currently at 1.8 t CO2/t steel. Improved energy efficiency by modernizing plants and adopting best available technologies in all process stages could decrease the emissions by 15–20%. Further reductions towards 1.0 t CO2/t steel level are achievable via novel technologies like top gas recycling in BF oxygen BF and maximal replacement of coke by biomass. These processes are however waiting for substantive industrialization. Generally substituting hydrogen for carbon in reductants and fuels like natural gas and coke gas can decrease CO2 emissions remarkably. The same holds for direct reduction processes (DR) which have spread recently exceeding 100 Mt annual capacity. More radical cut is possible via CO2 capture and storage (CCS). The technology is well-known in the oil industry; and potential applications in other sectors including the steel industry are being explored. While this might be a real solution in propitious circumstances it is hardly universally applicable in the long run. More auspicious is the concept that aims at utilizing captured carbon in the production of chemicals food or fuels e.g. methanol (CCU CCUS). The basic idea is smart but in the early phase of its application the high energy-consumption and costs are disincentives. The potential of hydrogen as a fuel and reductant is well-known but it has a supporting role in iron metallurgy. In the current fight against climate warming H2 has come into the “limelight” as a reductant fuel and energy storage. The hydrogen economy concept contains both production storage distribution and uses. In ironmaking several research programs have been launched for hydrogen production and reduction of iron oxides. Another global trend is the transfer from fossil fuel to electricity. “Green” electricity generation and hydrogen will be firmly linked together. The electrification of steel production is emphasized upon in this paper as the recycled scrap is estimated to grow from the 30% level to 50% by 2050. Finally in this review all means to reduce specific CO2 emissions have been summarized. By thorough modernization of production facilities and energy systems and by adopting new pioneering methods “world steel” could reach the level of 0.4–0.5 t CO2/t steel and thus reduce two-thirds of current annual emissions.
Experimental Study on Tri-fuel Combustion Using Premixed Methane-hydrogen Mixtures Ignited by a Diesel Pilot
Apr 2021
Publication
A comprehensive investigation on diesel pilot spray ignited methane-hydrogen (CH4–H2) combustion tri-fuel combustion (TF) is performed in a single-cylinder compression ignition (CI) engine. The experiments provide a detailed analysis of the effect of H2 concentration (based on mole fraction MH2) and charge-air temperature (Tair) on the ignition behavior combustion stability cycle-to-cycle (CCV) and engine performance. The results indicate that adding H2 from 0 to 60% shortens the ignition delay time (IDT) and combustion duration (based on CA90) up to 33% and 45% respectively. Thereby H2 helps to increase the indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) by as much as 10%. Furthermore to gain an insight into the combustion stability and CCV the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) and continuous wavelet transform (CWT) methodologies are applied to estimate the combustion stability and CCV of the TF combustion process. The results reveal that the pressure oscillation can be reduced up to 4 dB/Hz and the CCV by 50% when MH2 < 60% and Tair < 55 °C. However when MH2 > 60% and Tair > 40 °C abnormal combustion and knocking are observed.
Simulation Methodology for an Off-grid Solar–battery–water Electrolyzer Plant: Simultaneous Optimization of Component Capacities and System Control
Oct 2021
Publication
The capacity of each component in an off-grid water electrolyzer hydrogen production plant integrated with solar photovoltaics and a battery energy storage system represents a significant factor affecting the viability and reliability of the system. This paper describes a novel method that optimizes simultaneously the component capacities and finite-state machine based control of the system to minimize the cost of green hydrogen production. The components and control in the system are referenced to a proton exchange membrane water electrolyzer stack with a fixed nominal power of 4.5 kW. The end results are thus scalable by changing the nominal power of the electrolyzer. Simulations are carried out based on data collected from a residential solar photovoltaic installation with 300 s time resolution. Optimization of the system is performed with particle swarm optimization algorithm. A sensitivity analysis performed over the prices of the different components reveals that the price of the water electrolyzer has the greatest impact on the green hydrogen production cost. It is found that the price of the battery has to be below 0.3 e/Wh to become a feasible solution as overnight energy storage.
From Renewable Energy to Sustainable Protein Sources: Advancement, Challenges, and Future Roadmaps
Jan 2022
Publication
The concerns over food security and protein scarcity driven by population increase and higher standards of living have pushed scientists toward finding new protein sources. A considerable proportion of resources and agricultural lands are currently dedicated to proteinaceous feed production to raise livestock and poultry for human consumption. The 1st generation of microbial protein (MP) came into the market as land-independent proteinaceous feed for livestock and aquaculture. However MP may be a less sustainable alternative to conventional feeds such as soybean meal and fishmeal because this technology currently requires natural gas and synthetic chemicals. These challenges have directed researchers toward the production of 2nd generation MP by integrating renewable energies anaerobic digestion nutrient recovery biogas cleaning and upgrading carbon-capture technologies and fermentation. The fermentation of methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) and hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria (HOB) i.e. two protein rich microorganisms has shown a great potential on the one hand to upcycle effluents from anaerobic digestion into protein rich biomass and on the other hand to be coupled to renewable energy systems under the concept of Power-to-X. This work compares various production routes for 2nd generation MP by reviewing the latest studies conducted in this context and introducing the state-of-the-art technologies hoping that the findings can accelerate and facilitate upscaling of MP production. The results show that 2nd generation MP depends on the expansion of renewable energies. In countries with high penetration of renewable electricity such as Nordic countries off-peak surplus electricity can be used within MP-industry by supplying electrolytic H2 which is the driving factor for both MOB and HOB-based MP production. However nutrient recovery technologies are the heart of the 2nd generation MP industry as they determine the process costs and quality of the final product. Although huge attempts have been made to date in this context some bottlenecks such as immature nutrient recovery technologies less efficient fermenters with insufficient gas-to-liquid transfer and costly electrolytic hydrogen production and storage have hindered the scale up of MP production. Furthermore further research into techno-economic feasibility and life cycle assessment (LCA) of coupled technologies is still needed to identify key points for improvement and thereby secure a sustainable production system.
Numerical Study on Tri-fuel Combustion: Ignition Properties of Hydrogen-enriched Methane-diesel and Methanol-diesel Mixtures
Jan 2020
Publication
Simultaneous and interactive combustion of three fuels with differing reactivities is investigated by numerical simulations. In the present study conventional dual-fuel (DF) ignition phenomena relevant to DF compression ignition (CI) engines are extended and explored in tri-fuel (TF) context. In the present TF setup a low reactivity fuel (LRF) methane or methanol is perfectly mixed with hydrogen and air to form the primary fuel blend at the lean equivalence ratio of 0.5. Further such primary fuel blends are ignited by a high-reactivity fuel (HRF) here n-dodecane under conditions similar to HRF spray assisted ignition. Here ignition is relevant to the HRF containing parts of the tri-fuel mixtures while flame propagation is assumed to occur in the premixed LRF/ containing end gas regions. The role of hydrogen as TF mixture reactivity modulator is explored. Mixing is characterized by n-dodecane mixture fraction ξ and molar ratio . When x < 0.6 minor changes are observed for the first- and second-stage ignition delay time (IDT) of tri-fuel compared to dual-fuel blends (x = 0). For methane when x > 0.6 first- and second-stage IDT increase by factor 1.4–2. For methanol a respective decrease by factor 1.2–2 is reported. Such contrasting trends for the two LRFs are explained by reaction sensitivity analysis indicating the importance of OH radical production/consumption in the ignition process. Observations on LRF/ end gas laminar flame speed () indicate that increases with x due to the highly diffusive features of . For methane increase with x is more significant than for methanol.
Towards Electrochemical Hydrogen Storage in Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers via Proton-coupled Electron Transfers
Jun 2022
Publication
Green hydrogen is identified as one of the prime clean energy carriers due to its high energy density and a zero emission of CO2. A possible solution for the transport of H2 in a safe and low-cost way is in the form of liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs). As an alternative to loading LOHC with H2 via a two-step procedure involving preliminary electrolytic production of H2 and subsequent chemical hydrogenation of the LOHC we explore here the possibility of electrochemical hydrogen storage (EHS) via conversion of proton of a proton donor into a hydrogen atom involved in covalent bonds with the LOHC (R) via a proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) reaction: . 2 + +2 ― + ox↔ 0 2red We chose 9-fluorenone/fluorenol (Fnone/Fnol) conversion as such a model PCET reaction. The electrochemical activation of Fnone via two sequential electron transfers was monitored with in-situ and operando spectroscopies in absence and in presence of different alcohols as proton donors of different reactivity which enabled us to both quantify and get the mechanistic insight on PCET. The possibility of hydrogen extraction from the loaded carrier molecule was illustrated by chemical activation.
A Review on the Kinetics of Iron Ore Reduction by Hydrogen
Dec 2021
Publication
A clean energy revolution is occurring across the world. As iron and steelmaking have a tremendous impact on the amount of CO2 emissions there is an increasing attraction towards improving the green footprint of iron and steel production. Among reducing agents hydrogen has shown a great potential to be replaced with fossil fuels and to decarbonize the steelmaking processes. Although hydrogen is in great supply on earth extracting pure H2 from its compound is costly. Therefore it is crucial to calculate the partial pressure of H2 with the aid of reduction reaction kinetics to limit the costs. This review summarizes the studies of critical parameters to determine the kinetics of reduction. The variables considered were temperature iron ore type (magnetite hematite goethite) H2/CO ratio porosity flow rate the concentration of diluent (He Ar N2 ) gas utility annealing before reduction and pressure. In fact increasing temperature H2/CO ratio hydrogen flow rate and hematite percentage in feed leads to a higher reduction rate. In addition the controlling kinetics models and the impact of the mentioned parameters on them investigated and compared concluding chemical reaction at the interfaces and diffusion of hydrogen through the iron oxide particle are the most common kinetics controlling models.
Global Potential of Green Ammonia Based on Hybrid PV-wind Power Plants
Apr 2021
Publication
Ammonia is one of the most commonly used feedstock chemicals globally. Therefore decarbonisation of ammonia production is of high relevance towards achieving a carbon neutral energy system. This study investigates the global potential of green ammonia production from semi-flexible ammonia plants utilising a cost-optimised configuration of hybrid PV-wind power plants as well as conversion and balancing technologies. The global weather data used is on an hourly time scale and 0.45◦ × 0.45◦ spatial resolution. The results show that by 2030 solar PV would be the dominating electricity generation technology in most parts of the world and the role of batteries would be limited while no significant role is found for hydrogen-fuelled gas turbines. Green ammonia could be generated at the best sites in the world for a cost range of 440–630 345–420 300–330 and 260–290 €/tNH3 in 2020 2030 2040 and 2050 respectively for a weighted average capital cost of 7%. Comparing this to the decade-average fossil-based ammonia cost of 300–350 €/t green ammonia could become cost-competitive in niche markets by 2030 and substitute fossil-based ammonia globally at current cost levels. A possible cost decline of natural gas and consequently fossil-based ammonia could be fully neutralised by greenhouse gas emissions cost of about 75 €/tCO2 by 2040. By 2040 green ammonia in China would be lower in cost than ammonia from new coal-based plants even at the lowest coal prices and no greenhouse gas emissions cost. The difference in green ammonia production at the least-cost sites in the world’s nine major regions is less than 50 €/tNH3 by 2040. Thus ammonia shipping cost could limit intercontinental trading and favour local or regional production beyond 2040.
Impact of Hydrogen on Natural Gas Compositions to Meet Engine Gas Quality Requirements
Oct 2022
Publication
To meet the target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions hydrogen as a carbon-free fuel is expected to play a major role in future energy supplies. A challenge with hydrogen is its low density and volumetric energy value meaning that large tanks are needed to store and transport it. By injecting hydrogen into the natural gas network the transportation issue could be solved if the hydrogen–natural gas mixture satisfies the grid gas quality requirements set by legislation and standards. The end consumers usually have stricter limitations on the gas quality than the grid where Euromot the European association of internal combustion engine manufacturers has specific requirements on the parameters: the methane number and Wobbe index. This paper analyses how much hydrogen can be added into the natural gas grid to fulfil Euromot’s requirements. An average gas composition was calculated based on the most common ones in Europe in 2021 and the results show that 13.4% hydrogen can be mixed with a gas consisting of 95.1% methane 3.2% ethane 0.7% propane 0.3% butane 0.3% carbon dioxide and 0.5% nitrogen. The suggested gas composition indicates for engine manufacturers how much hydrogen can be added into the gas to be suitable for their engines.
Achieving Carbon-neutral Iron and Steelmaking in Europe Through the Deployment of Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage
Jan 2019
Publication
The 30 integrated steel plants operating in the European Union (EU) are among the largest single-point CO2 emitters in the region. The deployment of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (bio-CCS) could significantly reduce their emission intensities. In detail the results demonstrate that CO2 emission reduction targets of up to 20% can be met entirely by biomass deployment. A slow CCS technology introduction on top of biomass deployment is expected as the requirement for emission reduction increases further. Bio-CCS could then be a key technology particularly in terms of meeting targets above 50% with CO2 avoidance costs ranging between €60 and €100 tCO2−1 at full-scale deployment. The future of bio-CCS and its utilisation on a larger scale would therefore only be viable if such CO2 avoidance cost were to become economically appealing. Small and medium plants in particular would economically benefit from sharing CO2 pipeline networks. CO2 transport however makes a relatively small contribution to the total CO2 avoidance cost. In the future the role of bio-CCS in the European iron and steelmaking industry will also be influenced by non-economic conditions such as regulations public acceptance realistic CO2 storage capacity and the progress of other mitigation technologies.
True Cost of Solar Hydrogen
Sep 2021
Publication
Green hydrogen will be an essential part of the future 100% sustainable energy and industry system. Up to one-third of the required solar and wind electricity would eventually be used for water electrolysis to produce hydrogen increasing the cumulative electrolyzer capacity to about 17 TWel by 2050. The key method applied in this research is a learning curve approach for the key technologies i.e. solar photovoltaics (PV) and water electrolyzers and levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH). Sensitivities for the hydrogen demand and various input parameters are considered. Electrolyzer capital expenditure (CAPEX) for a large utility-scale system is expected to decrease from the current 400 €/kWel to 240 €/kWel by 2030 and to 80 €/kWel by 2050. With the continuing solar PV cost decrease this will lead to an LCOH decrease from the current 31–81 €/ MWhH2LHV (1.0–2.7 €/kgH2) to 20–54 €/MWhH2LHV (0.7–1.8 €/kgH2) by 2030 and 10–27 €/MWhH2LHV (0.3–0.9 €/kgH2) by 2050 depending on the location. The share of PV electricity cost in the LCOH will increase from the current 63% to 74% by 2050.
Green Hydrogen Production for Oil Refining - Finnish Case
Jan 2023
Publication
This study investigates the production of green hydrogen for use in oil refining as specified in the draft of European union delegated act published in May 2022. The European union plans to set strict requirements of additionality and reporting regarding the criteria of renewable electricity used in hydrogen production. Alkaline electrolyzer proton exchange membrane electrolyzer and solid oxide electrolyzer are evaluated in various scenarios supplied by wind power: power purchase agreement-based scenarios and wind power investment-based scenarios. In power purchase agreement-based scenarios baseload and pay as produced power purchase agreements (with and without electricity storage) are assessed. According to results the use of 600 MW compressed air energy storage could reduce the dependency on the grid by 7% but increase the cost of green hydrogen significantly. Investment-based scenarios produce green hydrogen with a lower operation cost but higher break-even price compared to power purchase agreement-based scenarios. The cheapest green hydrogen can be achieved by alkaline electrolyzer with baseload power purchase agreement. Direct ownership of wind power is outside the operation of oil refining industry thus power purchase agreements contracting is more likely to realize.
Challenges and Outlines of Steelmaking toward the Year 2030 and Beyond—Indian Perspective
Oct 2021
Publication
In FY-20 India’s steel production was 109 MT and it is the second-largest steel producer on the planet after China. India’s per capita consumption of steel was around 75 kg which has risen from 59 kg in FY-14. Despite the increase in consumption it is much lower than the average global consumption of 230 kg. The per capita consumption of steel is one of the strongest indicators of economic development across the nation. Thus India has an ambitious plan of increasing steel production to around 250 MT and per capita consumption to around 160 kg by the year 2030. Steel manufacturers in India can be classified based on production routes as (a) oxygen route (BF/BOF route) and (b) electric route (electric arc furnace and induction furnace). One of the major issues for manufacturers of both routes is the availability of raw materials such as iron ore direct reduced iron (DRI) and scrap. To achieve the level of 250 MT steel manufacturers have to focus on improving the current process and product scenario as well as on research and development activities. The challenge to stop global warming has forced the global steel industry to strongly cut its CO2 emissions. In the case of India this target will be extremely difficult by ruling in the production duplication planned by the year 2030. This work focuses on the recent developments of various processes and challenges associated with them. Possibilities and opportunities for improving the current processes such as top gas recycling increasing pulverized coal injection and hydrogenation as well as the implementation of new processes such as HIsarna and other CO2 -lean iron production technologies are discussed. In addition the eventual transition to hydrogen ironmaking and “green” electricity in smelting are considered. By fast-acting improvements in current facilities and brave investments in new carbon-lean technologies the CO2 emissions of the Indian steel industry can peak and turn downward toward carbon-neutral production.
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