South Africa

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) water electrolysis is an efficient and environmental friendly method that can be used for the production of molecular hydrogen of electrolytic grade using zero-carbon power sources such as renewable and nuclear. However market applications are asking for cost reduction and performances improvement. This can be achieved by increasing operating current density and lifetime of operation. Concerning performance safety reliability and durability issues the membrane-electrode assembly (MEA) is the weakest cell component. Most performance losses and most accidents occurring during PEM water electrolysis are usually due to the MEA. The purpose of this communication is to report on some specific degradation mechanisms that have been identified as a potential source of performance loss and membrane failure. An accelerated degradation test has been performed on a MEA by applying galvanostatic pulses. Platinum has been used as electrocatalyst at both anode and cathode in order to accelerate degradation rate by maintaining higher cell voltage and higher anodic potential that otherwise would have occurred if conventional Ir/IrOx catalysts had been used. Experimental evidence of degradation mechanisms have been obtained by post-mortem analysis of the MEA using microscopy and chemical analysis. Details of these degradation processes are presented and discussed.

One of the focus areas in the heavy-duty transport industry globally is de-carbonization of trucks dozers shovels semi-trucks buses etc. Hydrogen fuel cells (FCs) technology is one considered solution for the industry due to its zero-emissions its MW scalability and capacity to store large amounts of energy for long duration continuous power operation. Underground deep mines is another option for deployment and operation of hydrogen FCs. Benefits include lower emissions improved health comfort and safety as well as reduced operating costs. Underground mining trucks loaders and other machines have power ratings up to 750 kW which proves difficult for battery and tethered electric energy. Hydrogen FCs have the ability to overcome these power and energy storage limitations. The risks and technologies associated with delivering storing and using hydrogen underground first need to be investigated and proven safe. This work presents the design construction and operation of a mining ventilation test facility (VTF) at the North-West University in South Africa that aims to quantify the risk of hydrogen in confined ventilated environments. Initial work has been conducted on measuring concentrations of hydrogen released in the temporary ventilation site and is discussed.

The goal of the EU Horizon 2020 RISE project 778307 “Hydrogen fuelled utility vehicles and their support systems utilising metal hydrides” (HYDRIDE4MOBILITY) is in addressing critical issues towards a commercial implementation of hydrogen powered forklifts using metal hydride (MH) based hydrogen storage and PEM fuel cells together with the systems for their refuelling at industrial customers facilities. For these applications high specific weight of the metallic hydrides has an added value as it allows counterbalancing of a vehicle with no extra cost. Improving the rates of H2 charge/discharge in MH on the materials and system level simplification of the design and reducing the system cost together with improvement of the efficiency of system “MH store-FC” is in the focus of this work as a joint effort of consortium uniting academic teams and industrial partners from two EU and associated countries Member States (Norway Germany Croatia) and two partner countries (South Africa and Indonesia).<br/>The work within the project is focused on the validation of various efficient and cost-competitive solutions including (i) advanced MH materials for hydrogen storage and compression (ii) advanced MH containers characterised by improved charge-discharge dynamic performance and ability to be mass produced (iii) integrated hydrogen storage and compression/refuelling systems which are developed and tested together with PEM fuel cells during the collaborative efforts of the consortium.<br/>This article gives an overview of HYDRIDE4MOBILITY project focused on the results generated during its first phase (2017–2019).

Metal hydride (MH) thermal sorption compression is an efficient and reliable method allowing a conversion of energy from heat into a compressed hydrogen gas. The most important component of such a thermal engine – the metal hydride material itself – should possess several material features in order to achieve an efficient performance in the hydrogen compression. Apart from the hydrogen storage characteristics important for every solid H storage material (e.g. gravimetric and volumetric efficiency of H storage hydrogen sorption kinetics and effective thermal conductivity) the thermodynamics of the metal–hydrogen systems is of primary importance resulting in a temperature dependence of the absorption/desorption pressures). Several specific features should be optimised to govern the performance of the MH-compressors including synchronisation of the pressure plateaus for multi-stage compressors reduction of slope of the isotherms and hysteresis increase of cycling stability and life time together with challenges in system design associated with volume expansion of the metal matrix during the hydrogenation.<br/>The present review summarises numerous papers and patent literature dealing with MH hydrogen compression technology. The review considers (a) fundamental aspects of materials development with a focus on structure and phase equilibria in the metal–hydrogen systems suitable for the hydrogen compression; and (b) applied aspects including their consideration from the applied thermodynamic viewpoint system design features and performances of the metal hydride compressors and major applications.

The aim of this study was to determine how the efficiency of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyser is affected by an electric ripple current and the different characteristics of the ripple current (frequency amplitude and waveform). This paper presents the experimental method and measured results used to analyse the effect of ripple currents at various frequencies ripple factors and waveforms on the hydrogen production power consumption and efficiency of a PEM electrolyser. An active laboratory-size PEM electrolysis system was used to investigate the impact of various ripple currents on the efficiency of the system. The results revealed that the average power consumption increases as the ripple factor increases and decreases as the frequency of the ripple increases while the waveform of the applied current has no effect. Furthermore the average hydrogen flow rate is unaffected by the ripple factor frequency or waveform of the applied ripple current.

There is a great deal of knowledge and experience on the safe handling of hydrogen and the safe operation and management of hydrogen systems in South Africa. This knowledge and experience mostly sits within large gas supply companies and other large producers and consumers of hydrogen. However there appears to be less experience leading to a level of discomfort within regulatory bodies such as provincial and municipal fire departments and the national standards association. This compounded by a national policy of disallowing gas cylinders indoors has resulted in delays and indeed stalling in the process of obtaining permission to operate laboratories such as those of the national hydrogen programme HySA. In an effort to break this impasse two workshops were organised by HySA. The first was held at the CSIR’s facilities in Pretoria in October 2016. The second was held at the campus of the University of the Western Cape in Cape Town in May 2018. Four international experts and local experts in hydrogen regulations codes standards and safety addressed the 50-strong South African audiences via 5-way videoconferencing. This proved to be a very powerful tool to educate the audience and in particular the Tshwane (Pretoria) and Western Cape Fire Departments on the real issues risks and safety of hydrogen. The paper describes the South African Hydrogen RCS landscape the organisation and running of the workshops and the outputs achieved.

Biofuel a cost-effective safe and environmentally benign fuel produced from renewable sources has been accepted as a sustainable replacement and a panacea for the damaging effects of the exploration for and consumption of fossil-based fuels. The current work examines the classification generation and utilization of biofuels particularly in internal combustion engine (ICE) applications. Biofuels are classified according to their physical state technology maturity the generation of feedstock and the generation of products. The methods of production and the advantages of the application of biogas bioalcohol and hydrogen in spark ignition engines as well as biodiesel Fischer– Tropsch fuel and dimethyl ether in compression ignition engines in terms of engine performance and emission are highlighted. The generation of biofuels from waste helps in waste minimization proper waste disposal and sanitation. The utilization of biofuels in ICEs improves engine performance and mitigates the emission of poisonous gases. There is a need for appropriate policy frameworks to promote commercial production and seamless deployment of these biofuels for transportation applications with a view to guaranteeing energy security.

Magnesium hydride owns the largest share of publications on solid materials for hydrogen storage. The “Magnesium group” of international experts contributing to IEA Task 32 “Hydrogen Based Energy Storage” recently published two review papers presenting the activities of the group focused on magnesium hydride based materials and on Mg based compounds for hydrogen and energy storage. This review article not only overviews the latest activities on both fundamental aspects of Mg-based hydrides and their applications but also presents a historic overview on the topic and outlines projected future developments. Particular attention is paid to the theoretical and experimental studies of Mg-H system at extreme pressures kinetics and thermodynamics of the systems based on MgH₂ nanostructuring new Mg-based compounds and novel composites and catalysis in the Mg based H storage systems. Finally thermal energy storage and upscaled H storage systems accommodating MgH₂ are presented.

Concerns about greenhouse gases as well as the price and security of oil supply have acted as a spur to sustainable automobile development. The hydrogen fuel cells electric vehicle (HFCEV) is generally recognised by leading automobile manufacturers and scientists as one of the optimum technologies for long-term future low carbon vehicle. In a typical HFCEV power train a DC–DC converter is required to balance the voltage difference between the fuel cells (FCs) stack and batteries. However research shows that a considerable amount of energy generated by the hydrogen FCs stack is deplete during this conversion process as heat. This experiment aims to improve the power train efficiency by eliminating the DC–DC converter by finding the best combination of FC stack and batteries matching the size and capacity of the electrical components.

Efficiently predicting and understanding refuelling patterns in the context of HFVs is paramount for optimising fuelling processes infrastructure planning and facilitating vehicle operation. This study evaluates several supervised machine learning methodologies for predicting the refuelling behaviour of HFVs. The LightGBM model emerged as the most effective predictive model due to its ability to handle time series and seasonal data. The selected model integrates various input variables encompassing refuelling metrics day of the week and weather conditions (e.g. temperature precipitation) to capture intricate patterns and relationships within the data set. Empirical testing and validation against real-world refuelling data underscore the efficacy of the LightGBM model demonstrating a minimal deviation from actual data given limited data and thereby showcasing its potential to offer valuable insights to fuelling station operators vehicle manufacturers and policymakers. Overall this study highlights the potential of sustainable predictive modelling for optimising fuelling processes infrastructure planning and facilitating vehicle operation in the context of HFVs.

This paper reports on an experimental evaluation of the hydrogen separation performance in a proton exchange membrane system with Pt-Co/C as the anode electrocatalyst. The recovery of hydrogen from H2/CO2 H2/CH4 and H2/NH3 gas mixtures were determined in the temperature range of 100–160 ◦C. The effects of both the impurity concentration and cell temperature on the separation performance of the cell and membrane were further examined. The electrochemical properties and performance of the cell were determined by means of polarization curves limiting current density open-circuit voltage hydrogen permeability hydrogen selectivity hydrogen purity and cell efficiencies (current voltage and power efficiencies) as performance parameters. High purity hydrogen (>99.9%) was obtained from a low purity feed (20% H2 ) after hydrogen was separated from H2/CH4 mixtures. Hydrogen purities of 98–99.5% and 96–99.5% were achieved for 10% and 50% CO2 in the feed respectively. Moreover the use of proton exchange membranes for electrochemical hydrogen separation was unsuccessful in separating hydrogen-rich streams containing NH3 ; the membrane underwent irreversible damage.

This paper performs a technoeconomic comparison of two hybrid renewable energy supplies (HRES) for a specific location in Ghana and suggests the optimal solution in terms of cost energy generation capacity and emissions. (e two HRES considered in this paper were wind/hydrogen/fuel-cell and wind/battery storage respectively. (e necessity of this study was derived from the rise and expansion of hybrid renewable energy supply in a decentralised network. (e readiness to embrace these new technologies is apparently high but the best combination for a selected location that brings optimum benefits is not obvious and demands serious technical knowledge of their technical and economic models. In the methodology an analytical model of energy generation by the various RE sources was first established and data were collected about a rural-urban community in Doderkope Ghana to test the models. HOMER software was used to design the two hybrid systems based on the same load profiles and results were compared. It turns out that the HRES 1 (wind/hydrogen/fuel-cell) had the lowest net present cost (NPC) and levelized cost of electricity (COE) over the project life span of 25 years. (e energy reserve with the HRES 2 (wind/battery storage) was huge compared to that with the HRES 1 about 270% bigger. Furthermore with respect to the emissions the HRES 2 was environmentally friendlier than the HRES 1. Even though the battery storage seems to be more cost-effective than the hydrogen fuel cell technology the latter presents some merits regarding system capacity and emission that deserve greater attention as the world looks into more sustainable energy storage systems.

Hydrogen is a crucial energy carrier for the Clean Energy Sustainable Development Goals and the just transition to low/zero-carbon energy. As a top CO2-emitting country hydrogen (especially green hydrogen) production in South Africa has gained momentum due to the availability of resources such as solar energy land wind energy platinum group metals (as catalysts for electrolysers) and water. However the demand for green hydrogen in South Africa is insignificant which implies that the majority of the production must be exported. Despite the positive developments there are unclear matters such as dependence on the national electricity grid for green hydrogen production and the cost of transporting it to Asian and European markets. Hence this study aims to explore opportunities for economic expansion for sustainable production transportation storage and utilisation of green hydrogen produced in South Africa. This paper uses a thematic literature review methodology. The key findings are that the available renewable energy sources incentivizing the green economy carbon taxation and increasing the demand for green hydrogen in South Africa and Africa could decrease the cost of hydrogen from 3.54 to 1.40 €/kgH2 and thus stimulate its production usage and export. The appeal of green hydrogen lies in diversifying products to green hydrogen as an energy carrier clean electricity synthetic fuels green ammonia and methanol green fertilizers and green steel production with the principal purpose of significant energy decarbonisation and economic and foreign earnings. These findings are expected to drive the African hydrogen revolution in agreement with the AU 2063 agenda.

An equilibrium-based steady-state simulator model that predicts and optimizes hydrogen production from steam gasification ofbiomass is developed using ASPEN Plus software and artificial intelligence techniques. Corn cob’s chemical composition wascharacterized to ensure the biomass used as a gasifier and with potential for production of hydrogen. Artificial intelligence is usedto examine the effects of the significant input variables on response variables such as hydrogen mole fraction and hydrogen energycontent. Optimizing the steam-gasification process using response surface methodology (RSM) considering a variety of biomass-steam ratios was carried out to achieve the best results. Hydrogen yield and the impact of main operating parameters wereconsidered. A maximum hydrogen concentration is found in the gasifier and water-gas shift (WGS) reactor at the highest steam-to-biomass (S/B) ratio and the lowest WGS reaction temperature while the gasification temperature has an optimum value. ANFISwas used to predict hydrogen of mole fraction 0.5045 with the input parameters of S/B ratio of 2.449 and reactor pressure andtemperature of 1 bar and 848°C respectively. With the steam-gasification model operating at temperature (850°C) pressure (1 bar)and S/B ratio of 2.0 an ASPEN simulator achieved a maximum of 0.5862 mole fraction of hydrogen while RSM gave an increaseof 19.0% optimum hydrogen produced over the ANFIS prediction with the input parameters of S/B ratio of 1.053 and reactorpressure and temperature of 1 bar and 850°C respectively. Varying the gasifier temperature and S/B ratio have on the other handa crucial effect on the gasification process with artificial intelligence as a unique tool for process evaluation prediction andoptimization to increase a significant impact on the products especially hydrogen.

The depletion and overuse of fossil fuels present formidable challenge to energy supply system and environment. The human society is in great need of clean renewable and sustainable energy which can guarantee the long-term utilization without leading to escalation of greenhouse effect. Hydrogen as an extraordinary secondary energy is capable of realizing the target of environmental protection and transferring the intermittent primary energy to the application terminal while its nature of low volumetric energy density and volatility need suitable storage method and proper carrier. In this context liquid organic hydrogen carrier (LOHC) among a series of storage methods such as compressed and liquefied hydrogen provokes a considerable amount of research interest since it is proven to be a suitable carrier for hydrogen with safety and stability. However the dehydrogenation of hydrogen-rich LOHC materials is an endothermic process and needs large energy consumption which hampers the scale up of the LOHC system. The heat issue is thus essential to be addressed for fulfilling the potential of LOHC. In this work several strategies of heat intensification and management for LOHC system including the microwave irradiation circulation of exhaust heat and direct LOHC fuel cell are summarized and analyzed to provide suggestions and directions for future research.

The power and transport sectors are responsible for significant emissions of greenhouse gases. Therefore it is imperative that substantial efforts are directed towards the decarbonisation of these industries. This study establishes a combined-solar-wind system's economic and technical practicality for producing hydrogen for an onsite hydrogen refuelling station (HRS) and electricity to meet peak demand. To minimise the levelised cost of electricity and maximise the system's reliability at different commercial locations in South Africa the dual-objective optimisation sizing is carried out using Mixed Integer Quadratic Constrained Programming (MICQP) model and was executed with an Advanced Multi-dimensional Modelling System (AIMMS) [61] [62]. The levelised costs of electricity and hydrogen at Johannesburg Pretoria and Cape Town for 2 MW grid export benchmark are 74.2 $/MWh/5.85 $/kg 76.3 $/MWh/5.97 $/kg and 50 $/MWh/4.45 $/kg respectively. The CO₂ equivalent emissions (tonnes) are 54000 55800 59000 and the corresponding carbon taxes ($) avoided for the locations are 432100 446200 and 472000 for Johannesburg Pretoria and Cape Town respectively. The results of the framework show that it can be adopted as a viable and fossil-free replacement for conventional peaking generators.

The Middle East and North Africa region has not played a major role in climate action so far and several countries depend economically on fossil fuel exports. However this is a region with vast solar energy resources which can be exploited affordably for power generation and hydrogen production at scale to eventually reach carbon neutrality. In this paper we elaborate on the case of the United Arab Emirates and explore the aspirations and feasibility of its net-zero by 2050 target. While we affirm the concept per se we also highlight the technological complexity and economic dimensions that accompany such transformation. We expect the UAE’s electricity demand to triple between today and 2050 and the annual green hydrogen production is expected to reach 3.5 Mt accounting for over 40% of the electricity consumption. Green hydrogen will provide power-to-fuel solutions for aviation maritime transport and hard-to-abate industries. At the same time electrification will intensify—most importantly in road transport and low-temperature heat demands. The UAE can meet its future electricity demands primarily with solar power followed by natural gas power plants with carbon capture utilization and storage while the role of nuclear power in the long term is unclear at this stage.

Fuel cells have become a fundamental technology in the development of clean energy systems playing a vital role in the global shift toward a low-carbon future. With the growing need for sustainable hydrogen production perfluoro sulfonic acid (PFSA) ionomer membranes play a critical role in optimizing green hydrogen technologies and fuel cells. This study aims to investigate the effects of different environmental and solvent treatments on the chemical and physical properties of Nafion N−115 membranes to evaluate their suitability for both hydrogen production in proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers and hydrogen utilization in fuel cells supporting integrated applications in the local and global green hydrogen economy. To achieve this Nafion N−115 membranes were partially dissolved in various solvent mixtures including ethanol/isopropanol (EI) isopropanol/water (IW) dimethylformamide/N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (DN) and ethanol/methanol/isopropanol (EMI) evaluated under water immersion and thermal stress and characterized for chemical stability mechanical strength water uptake and proton conductivity using advanced electrochemical and spectroscopic techniques. The results demonstrated that the EMI-treated membrane showed the highest proton conductivity and maintained its structural integrity making it the most promising for hydrogen electrolysis applications. Conversely the DN-treated membrane exhibited reduced stability and lower conductivity due to solvent-induced degradation. This study highlights the potential of EMI as an optimal solvent mixture for enhancing PFSA membranes performance in green hydrogen production contributing to the advancement of sustainable energy solutions.

The increasing global wastewater generation and reliance on fossil fuels for energy production necessitate sustainable treatment and energy recovery solutions. This study explores supercritical water gasification (SCWG) of sewage sludge from municipal wastewater as a hydrogen production pathway focusing on the role of alkali catalysts (KOH K₂CO₃ Na₂CO₃). The effects of temperature (450–550◦C) reaction time (5–30 min) and catalyst type on gas yield and efficiency were analyzed. At 550◦C the highest carbon efficiency (61 %) gas efficiency (69 %) and hydrogen yield (41 mol/kg) were observed. After 30 min the gas composition reached H₂ (58 %) CO₂ (26 %) CH₄ (11.7 %) and CO (4 %). Among catalysts Na₂CO₃ exhibited superior H₂ yield (29 mol/kg) carbon efficiency (58 %) and gas efficiency (51 %). This study highlights SCWG as a viable technology for hydrogen-rich gas production contributing to sustainable energy solutions and wastewater valorization.

The hydrogen economy stands at the forefront of the global energy transition and additive manufacturing (AM) is increasingly recognized as a critical enabler of this transformation. AM offers unique capabilities for improving the performance and durability of hydrogen energy components through rapid prototyping topology optimization functional integration of cooling channels and the fabrication of intricate hierarchical structured pores with precisely controlled connectivity. These features facilitate efficient heat and mass transfer thereby improving hydrogen production storage and utilization efficiency. Furthermore AM’s multi-material and functionally graded printing capability holds promise for producing components with tailored properties to mitigate hydrogen embrittlement significantly extending operational lifespan. Collectively these advances suggest that AM could lower manufacturing costs for hydrogen-related systems while improving performance and reliability. However the current literature provides limited evidence on the integrated techno-economic advantages of AM in hydrogen applications posing a significant barrier to large-scale industrial adoption. At present the technological readiness level (TRL) of AM-based hydrogen components is estimated to be 4–5 reflecting laboratory-scale progress but underscoring the need for further development validation and industrial-scale demonstration before commercialization can be realized.

Improving the efficiency and range of hydrogen-powered electric vehicles (HPEVs) is essential for their global adoption especially in developing countries with limited resources. This study systematically evaluates regenerative braking and suspension systems in HPEVs and proposes a deployment-focused framework tailored to the needs of developing nations. A comprehensive search was performed across multiple databases to identify relevant studies. The selected studies are screened assessed for quality and analyzed based on predefined criteria. The data is synthesized and interpreted to identify patterns gaps and conclusions. The findings show that regeneration systems such as regenerative braking and regenerative suspension are the most effective energy recovery systems in most electric and hydrogen-powered vehicles. Although the regenerative braking system (RBS) offers higher energy efficiency gains that enhance cost-effectiveness despite its high initial investment the regenerative suspension system (RSS) involves increased complexity. Still it offers comparatively efficient energy recovery particularly in developing countries with patchy road infrastructure. The gaps highlighted in this review will aid researchers and vehicle manufacturers in designing optimizing developing and commercializing HPEVs for deployment in developing countries.

Green hydrogen presents a promising solution for decarbonisation but its widespread adoption faces significant challenges. To meet Europe’s 2030 targets a 250-fold increase in electrolyser capacity is required necessitating an investment of €170-240 billion. This involves constructing 20-40 pioneering megaprojects each with a 1-5 GW capacity. Historically pioneering energy projects have seen capital costs double or triple from initial estimates with over 50% failing to meet production goals at startup due to new technology introductions site-specific characteristics and project complexity. Additionally megaprojects costing more than €1 billion frequently succumb to the "iron law" which states they are often over budget take longer than anticipated and yield fewer benefits than expected mainly because key players consistently underestimate costs and risks. Pursuing multiple pioneering megaprojects simultaneously restricts opportunities for iterative learning which raises risks related to untested technologies and infrastructure demands. This vision paper introduces a novel risk assessment framework that combines insights from pioneering and megaprojects with technology readiness evaluations and comparative CO2 reduction analyses to tackle these challenges. The framework aims to guide investment decisions and risk mitigation strategies such as staged scaling and limiting the introduction of new technology. The analysis highlights that using green ammonia for fertiliser production can reduce CO2 emissions by 51 tons of CO2 per ton of hydrogen significantly outperforming hydrogen use in transportation and heating. This structured approach considers risks and environmental benefits while promoting equitable risk distribution between developed and developing nations.

The power-to-methanol (PtMeOH) will play a crucial role as a form of renewable chemical energy storage. In this paper PtMeOH techno-economics are assessed using the promising configuration from the previous work (Mbatha et al. [1]). This study evaluated the effect of parameters such as the CO2 emission tax electricity price and CAPEX reduction on the product methanol economic parity with respect to a reference case. Superior to previous economic studies a scenario where an existing methanol synthesis infrastructure is 100 % retrofitted with the promising electrolyser is assessed in terms of its economics and the associated economic parity. The volatile South African electricity market is considered as a case study. The sensitivity of the PtMeOH and green H2 profitability are checked. Grid-connected and standalone renewable energy PtMeOH scenarios are assessed. Foremost generalisable effect trends of these parameters on the net present value (NPV) and the levelized cost of methanol(LCOMeOH) and H2 (LCOH2) are discussed. The results show that economic parity of H2 (LCOH2 = current selling price = 4.06 €/kg) can be reached with an electricity price of 30 €/MWh and 70 % of the CAPEX. While the LCOMeOH will still be above 2 €/kg at 80 % of the CAPEX and electricity price of 20 €/MWh. This indicates that even if the CAPEX reduces to 20 % of its original in this study and the electricity price reduces to about 20 €/MWh the LCOMEOH will still not reach economic parity (LCOMeOH > current selling price = 0.44 €/kg). The results show that to make the retrofitted plant with a minimum of 20 years of life span profitable a feasible reduction in the electricity price to below 10 €/MWh along with favourable incentives such as CO2 credit and reduction in CAPEX particularly that of the electrolyser and treatment of the PtMeOH as a multiproduct plant will be required.

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector is known to be an important contribution to climate change mitigation. Some parts of the transport sector are particularly difficult to decarbonize; this includes the heavy-duty vehicle sector which is considered one of the “hardto-abate” sectors of the economy. Transitioning from diesel trucks to hydrogen fuel cell trucks has been identified as a potential way to decarbonize the sector. However the current and future costs and efficiencies of the enabling technologies remain unclear. In light of these uncertainties this paper investigates the investments required to decarbonize New Zealand’s heavy-duty vehicle sector with green hydrogen. By combining system dynamics modelling literature and hydrogen transition modelling literature a customized methodology is developed for modelling hydrogen transitions with system dynamics modelling. Results are presented in terms of the investments required to purchase the hydrogen production capacity and the investments required to supply electricity to the hydrogen production systems. Production capacity investments are found to range between 1.59 and 2.58 billion New Zealand Dollars and marginal electricity investments are found to range between 4.14 and 7.65 billion New Zealand Dollars. These investments represent scenarios in which 71% to 90% of the heavy-duty vehicle fleet are replaced with fuel cell trucks by 2050. The wide range of these findings reflects the large uncertainties in estimates of how hydrogen technologies will develop over the course of the next thirty years. Policy recommendations are drawn from these results and a clear opportunity for future work is outlined. Most notably the results from this study should be compared with research investigating the investments required to decarbonize the heavy-duty vehicle sectors with alternative technologies such as battery-electric trucks biodiesel and catenary systems. Such a comparison would ensure that the most cost effective decarbonization strategy is employed.

The majority of rail vehicles worldwide use diesel as a primary fuel source. Diesel engine carbon emissions harm the environment and human health. Although railway electrification can reduce emissions it is not always the most economical option especially on routes with low vehicle demand. As a result interest in hydrogen-powered trains as a way to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has steadily grown in recent years. In this paper we discuss advancements made in hydrogen-powered freight and commuter trains as well as the technology used in some aspects of hydrogen-powered vehicles. It was observed that hydrogen-powered trains are already in use in Europe and Asia unlike most developing countries in Africa. Commuter trains have received most of the research and development (R&D) attention but interest in hydrogen-powered freight trains has recently picked up momentum. Despite the availability and use of gray and blue hydrogen green hydrogen is still the preferred fuel for decarbonizing the rail transport sector.