Institution of Gas Engineers & Managers

Hydrogen technologies are evolving to decarbonise the transport sector. The present work focuses on the technical design of a Hydrogen Refueling Station to supply hydrogen to five buses in the city of Valencia Spain. The study deals with the technical selection of the components from production to consumption setting an efficient standardisation method. Different calculation are used to size the storage systems for 70.8 kg of hydrogen produced by the elecrolyser daily. For the high-pressure storage system massive and cascade methods are proposed being the last one more efficient (1577.53 Nm3 non usable volume compared to 9948.95 Nm3 of the massive method).

This study addresses the challenge of decarbonizing highly energy-intensive Industrial Port Areas (IPA) focusing on emissions from various sources like ship traffic warehouses buildings cargo handling equipment and hardto-abate industry typically hosted in port areas. The analysis and proposal of technological solutions and their optimal integration in the context of IPA is a topic of growing scientific interest with considerable social and economic implications. Representing the main novelties of the work this study introduces (i) the development of a novel IPA energy and green hydrogen hub located in a tropical region (Singapore); (ii) a multi-objective optimization approach to analyse synthesize and optimize the design and operation of the hydrogen and energy hub with the aim of supporting decision-making for decarbonization investments. A sensitivity analysis identifies key parameters affecting optimization results indicating that for large hydrogen demands imported ammonia economically outperforms other green hydrogen carriers. Conversely local hydrogen production via electrolysis becomes economically viable when the capital cost of alkaline electrolyser drops by at least 30 %. Carbon tax influences the choice of green hydrogen but its price variation mainly impacts system operation rather than design. Fuel cells and batteries are not considered economically feasible solutions in any scenario.

To inject green hydrogen (H2) into the existing natural gas (NG) infrastructure is one way to decarbonize the European energy system. However asset readiness is necessary to be successful. Preliminary analysis and experimental results about the compatibility of hydrogen and natural gas mixtures (H2NG) with the actual gas grids make the scientific community confident about the feasibility. Nevertheless specific technical questions need more research. A significant topic of debate is the impact of H2NG mixtures on the performance of state-ofthe-art fiscal measuring devices which are essential for accurate billing. Identifying and addressing any potential degradation in their metrological performance due to H2NG is critical for decision-making. However the literature lacks data about the gas meters’ technologies currently installed in the NG grids such as a comprehensive overview of their readiness at different concentrations while data are fragmented among different sources. This paper addresses these gaps by analyzing the main characteristics and categorizing more than 20000 gas meters installed in THOTH2 project partners’ grids and by summarizing the performance of traditional technologies with H2NG mixtures and pure H2 based on literature review operators experience and manufacturers knowledge. Based on these insights recommendations are given to stakeholders on overcoming the identified barriers to facilitate a smooth transition.

The transition towards clean and economically viable hydrogen production is crucial for ensuring energy sustainability and mitigating climate change. This transition can be effectively facilitated by using renewable energy sources and advanced hydrogen production methods. Methane pyrolysis and water electrolysis emerge as crucial techniques for achieving hydrogen production with minimal carbon intensity. Recognizing the unique opportunity presented by solar energy for both processes this study presents a comparative techno-economic analysis between solar-based molten salt methane pyrolysis (SMSMP) and solar-based solid oxide electrolyzer cell (SSOEC). This study offers a guideline for selecting SMSMP vs SSOEC for cities across theworld. In particular a comprehensive case study including five cities worldwide—San Antonio Edmonton Auckland Seville and Lyon—is conducted utilizing their dynamic solar data and localized prices of methane and electricity to provide a realistic comparison. The results indicate the superior economic feasibility of SMSMP across all case studies. Among different case studies San Antonio and Auckland have the lowest hydrogen costs for SMSMP (2.31 $/kgH2) and SSOEC (5.19 $/kgH2) respectively. It was also concluded that SMSMP is preferred over SSOEC in average to ideal solar conditions given its full dependency on solar thermal energy. However the SSOEC has the potential to achieve better economic feasibility by incorporating clean hydrogen tax incentives and reducing the costs associated with renewable energy infrastructure in the future.

The transition to green energy in the transport sector is becoming a priority in the context of global climate challenges and the European Green Deal. This paper investigates the development of alternative fuelling stations particularly electric vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure and hydrogen stations across EU countries with a focus on Poland. It combines a policy and technology overview with a quantitative scientific analysis offering a multidimensional perspective on green infrastructure deployment. A Pearson correlation analysis reveals significant links between charging station density and both GDP per capita and the share of renewable energy. The study introduces an original Infrastructure Accessibility Index (IAI) to compare infrastructure availability across EU member states and models Poland’s EV charging station demand up to 2030 under multiple growth scenarios. Furthermore the article provides a comprehensive overview of biofuels including first- second- and third-generation technologies and highlights recent advances in hydrogen and renewable electricity integration. Emphasis is placed on life cycle considerations energy source sustainability and economic implications. The findings support policy development toward zero-emission mobility and the decarbonisation of transport systems offering recommendations for infrastructure expansion and energy diversification strategies.

Until recently electrified aircraft propulsion (EAP) technology development has been driven by the dual objectives of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and addressing the depletion of fossil fuels. However the increasing severity of climate change posing a significant threat to all life forms has resulted in the global consensus of achieving net-zero GHG emissions by 2050. This major shift has alerted the aviation electrification industry to consider the following: What is the clear path forward for EAP technology development to support the net-zero GHG goals for large commercial transport aviation? The purpose of this paper is to answer this question. After identifying four types of GHG emissions that should be used as metrics to measure the effectiveness of each technology for GHG reduction the paper presents three significant categories of GHG reduction efforts regarding the engine evaluates the potential of EAP technologies within each category as well as combinations of technologies among the different categories using the identified metrics and thus determines the path forward to support the net-zero GHG objective. Specifically the paper underscores the need for the aviation electrification industry to adapt adjust and integrate its EAP technology development into the emerging new engine classes. These innovations and collaborations are crucial to accelerate net-zero GHG efforts effectively.

A liquid air energy storage (LAES) system is a promising Carnot battery configuration capable of efficiently recovering waste heat and cold energy carriers. Among these liquid hydrogen (LH₂) regasification presents a significant opportunity due to its high exergy content and its regasification temperature which aligns well with the liquid air liquefaction process. While most existing studies focus on integrating LAES with liquid natural gas (LNG) regasification or improving hydrogen liquefaction via liquid air regasification this work takes a novel approach by enhancing liquid air liquefaction through the utilization of waste cold from LH₂ regasification. Additionally this study explores an economic innovation the valorization of clean dry air discharged by LAES which has not been extensively examined in prior literature. A novel LAES configuration is proposed and subjected to a techno-economic analysis comparing its performance with a stand-alone LAES system. Results show that the proposed integration increases round-trip efficiency by 15 % reduces the levelized cost of storage by 60 % and achieves a payback period of under 10 years. These findings provide valuable insights for both academia and industry advancing the development of more efficient and economically viable LAES systems.

Promoting the development of China’s hydrogen energy industry is crucial for achieving green energy transition. However existing research lacks systematic studies on the spatial layout of the hydrogen industry chain. This study constructed a comprehensive theoretical framework encompassing hardware infrastructure software systems and soft power. Using multi-source heterogeneous data GIS analysis and NVivo text coding methods the current regional layout and challenges of China’s hydrogen infrastructure industry chain were systematically evaluated. The findings determined that economically developed eastern regions lead in infrastructure and soft power while central and western regions leverage their resource and manufacturing advantages. Major challenges include regional imbalances in hardware infrastructure uneven distribution of soft power and misalignment between software systems and actual needs. Analysis of the “14th Five-Year Plan” of various regions elucidated deep insights into the diversity of local hydrogen energy development strategies identifying five types of hydrogen cities: resource-advantaged market-oriented regionally collaborative innovation-driven and policy-supported. Accordingly strategies to enhance industry chain synergy clarify city roles and optimize regional ecosystems were proposed. It is recommended to integrate hydrogen infrastructure with urban planning and incorporate environmental impact assessments into spatial optimization decisions. This study provides a systematic analytical framework and progressive policy recommendations for the efficient and green layout of China’s hydrogen infrastructure offering important implications for the sustainable development of the hydrogen industry and other rapidly developing economies.

The steel industry is one of the major sources of greenhouse gas emissions with significant energy demand. Currently 73% of the world’s steel is manufactured through the coal-coke-based blast furnace-basic oxygen furnace route (BF-BOF) emitting about two tonnes of CO2 per tonne of steel produced. This review reports the major technologies recent developments challenges and technoeconomic comparison of steelmaking technol ogies emphasising the integration of hydrogen in emerging and established ironmaking and steelmaking pro cesses. Significant trials are underway especially in Germany to replace coal injected in the tuyeres of the blast furnace with hydrogen. However it is not clear that this approach can be extended beyond 30% replacement of coke because of the associated technical challenges. Direct smelting and fluidised bed technologies can emit 20%–30% less CO2 without carbon capture and storage utilisation. The implications of hydrogen energy in these technologies as a substitute for natural gas and coal are yet to be fully explored. A hydrogen-based direct reduction of iron ore (DRI) and steel scrap melting in an electric arc furnace (EAF) appeared to be the most mature technological routes to date capable of reducing CO2 emission by 95% but rely on the availability of rich iron concentrates as feed materials. Shaft furnace technologies are the common DRI-making process with a share of over 72% of the total production. The technology has been developed with natural gas as the main fuel and reductant. However it is now being adapted to operate predominantly on hydrogen to produce a low-carbon DRI product. Plasma and electrolysis-based iron and steelmaking are some of the other potential technologies for the application of hydrogen with a CO2 reduction potential of over 95%. However these technologies are in the preliminary stage of development with a technology readiness level of below 6. There are many technological challenges for the application of hydrogen in steel manufacturing such as challenges in distributing heat due to the endothermic H2 reduction process balancing carbon content in the product steel (particularly using zerocarbon DRI) removal of gangue materials and sourcing of cost-competitive renewable hydrogen and highquality iron ore (65>Fe). As iron ore quality degrades worldwide several companies are considering melting DRI before steelmaking possibly using submerged arc technology to eliminate gangue materials. Hence sig nificant laboratory and pilot-scale demonstrations are required to test process parameters and product qualities. Our analysis anticipates that hydrogen will play an instrumental role in decarbonising steel industries by 2035.

The growing emphasis on renewable energy highlights hydrogen’s potential as a clean energy carrier. However traditional hydrogen production methods contribute significantly to carbon emissions. This review examines the integration of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies with hydrogen production processes focusing on their ability to mitigate carbon emissions. It evaluates various hydrogen production techniques including steam methane reforming electrolysis and biomass gasification and discusses how CCS can enhance environmental sustainability. Key challenges such as economic technical and regulatory obstacles are analyzed. Case studies and future trends offer insights into the feasibility of CCS–hydrogen integration providing pathways for reducing greenhouse gases and facilitating a clean energy transition.

The number of species and elementary reactions needed for describing the oxidation of fuels increases with the size of the molecule and in turn the complexity of detailed mechanisms. Although the kinetics for conventional fuels (H2 CH4 C3H8...) are somewhat well-established chemical integration in detonation applications remains a major challenge. Significant efforts have been made to develop reduction techniques that aim to keep the predictive capabilities of detailed mechanisms intact while minimizing the number of species and reactions required. However as their starting point of development is based on homogeneous reactors or ZND profiles reduced mechanisms comprising a few species and reactions are not predictive. The methodology presented here relies on defining virtual chemical species such that the thermodynamic equilibrium of the ZND structure is properly recovered thereby circumventing the need to account for minor intermediate species. A classical asymptotic expression relating the ignition delay time with the reaction rate constant is then used to fit the Arrhenius coefficients targeting computations carried out with detailed kinetics. The methodology was extended to develop a three-step mechanism in which the Arrhenius coefficients were optimized to accurately reproduce the one-dimensional laminar ZND structure and the D−κ curves for slightly-curved quasi-steady detonation waves. Two-dimensional simulations performed with the three-step mechanism successfully reproduce the spectrum of length scales present in soot foils computed with detailed kinetics (i.e. cell regularity and size). Results attest for the robustness of the proposed methodology/approximation and its flexibility to be adapted to different configurations.

The paper discusses potential hazards at hydrogen refueling stations for transportation vehicles: cars and trucks. The main hazard analyzed here is an uncontrolled gas release due to a failure in one of the structures in the station: storage tanks of different pressure levels or a dispenser. This may lead to a hydrogen cloud occurring near the source of the release or at a given distance. The range of the cloud was analyzed in connection to the amount of the released gas and the wind velocity. The results of the calculations were compared for chosen structures in the station. Then potential fires and explosions were investigated. The hazard zones were calculated with respect to heat fluxes generated in the fires and the overpressure generated in explosions. The maximum ranges of these zones vary from about 14 to 30 m and from about 9 to 14 m for a fires and an explosions of hydrogen respectively. Finally human death probabilities are presented as functions of the distance from the sources of the uncontrolled hydrogen releases. These are shown for different amounts and pressures of the released gas. In addition the risk of human death is determined along with the area where it reaches the highest value in the whole station. The risk of human death in this area is 1.63 × 10−5 [1/year]. The area is approximately 8 square meters.

This paper describes the performance of explosion free in fire self-venting (TPRD-less) composite tanks of Type IV in fires of realistic intensity HRR/A=1 MW/m2 in conditions of first responders’ intervention. This breakthrough safety technology does not require the use of thermally activated pressure relief devices (TPRD). It provides microleaks-no-burst (LNB) performance of high-pressure hydrogen storage tanks in a fire. Two fire intervention strategies are investigated one is the removal of a vehicle with LNB tank from the fire and another is the extinction of the fire. The removal from the fire scenario is investigated for one carbon-carbon and one carbon-basalt double-composite wall tank prototype. The fire extinction scenario is studied for four carbon-basalt prototypes. All six prototypes of 7.5 L volume and nominal working pressure of 70 MPa demonstrated safe release of hydrogen through microchannels of the composite wall after melting a liner. The technology allows fire brigades to apply standard intervention strategies and tactics at the fire scene with hydrogen vehicles if LNB tanks are used in the vehicle.

The European Union aims to deploy a high share of renewable energy sources in Europe’s power system by 2050. Large-scale intermittent wind and solar power production requires flexibility to ensure an adequate supply–demand balance. Green hydrogen (GH) can increase power systems’ flexibility and decrease renewable energy production’s curtailment. However investing in GH is costly and dependent on electricity prices which are important for operational costs in electrolysis. Moreover the use of GH for power system flexibility might not be economically viable if there is no hydrogen demand from the hydrogen market. If so questions would arise as to what would be the incentives to introduce GH as a source of flexibility in the power system and how would electrolyzer costs hydrogen demand and other factors affect the economic viability of GH usage for power system flexibility. The paper implements a European power system model formulated as a stochastic program to address these questions. The authors use the model to compare various instances with hydrogen in the power system to a no-hydrogen instance. The results indicate that by 2050 deployment of approximately 140 GW of GH will pay off investments and make the technology economically viable. We find that the price of hydrogen is estimated to be around €30/MWh.

The weather-dependent nature of renewable energy production has led to periodic overproduction making hydrogen production a practical solution for storing excess energy. In addition to conventional storage methods such as physical tanks or chemical bonding using the existing natural gas network as a storage medium has also proven to be effective. Households can play a role in this process as well. The purpose of these experiments is to evaluate the parameters of a household heating device currently in use but not initially designed for hydrogen operation. The appliance used in the tests has a closed combustion chamber with a natural draft induced by a density difference which is a common type. The tests were conducted at nominal load with a mix of 0–40 V/V% hydrogen and natural gas; no flashbacks or other issues occurred. As the hydrogen ratio increased from 0 to 40 V/V% the input heat decreased from 3.9 kW to 3.4 kW. The NOx concentration in the flue gas dropped from 26.2 ppm to 14.2 ppm and the CO2 content decreased from 4.5 V/V% to 3.4 V/V%. However the CO con centration slightly increased from 40.0 ppm to 44.1 ppm. Despite these changes efficiency remained stable fluctuating between 86.9% and 87.0%. The internal flame cone height was 3.27 mm when using natural gas but reduced sharply to just 0.38 mm when using 62 V/V% hydrogen. In addition to the fact that the article examines a group of devices that has been rarely investigated but is also widely distributed it also provides valuable experience for other experiments since the experiments were carried out with a higher hydrogen ratio compared to previous works.

A wireless near-field hydrogen gas sensor is proposed which detects the leaking hydrogen near its source to achieve fast response and high reliability. The proposed sensor can detect leaking hydrogen in 100ms with nearly no delay due to hydrogen diffusion in space. The overall response time is shortened by orders of magnitude compared to conventional sensors according to simulation results. Over 1 year of maintenance interval is empowered by wireless design based on Bluetooth low energy protocol.

This study aims to explore the techno-economic potential of harnessing waste heat from a Small Modular Reactor (SMR) to fuel Direct Air Carbon Capture (DACC) and High Temperature Steam Electrolysis (HTSE) technologies. The proposed system’s material flows and energy demands are modelled via the ASPEN Plus v12.1 where results are utilised to provide estimates of the Levelised Cost of DACC (LCOD) and Levelised Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH). The majority of thermal energy and electrical utilities are assumed to be supplied directly by the SMR. A sensitivity analysis is then performed to investigate the effects of core operational parameters of the system. Key results indicate levelised costs of 4.66 $/kgH2 at energy demands of 34.37 kWh/kgH2 and 0.02 kWh/kgH2 thermal for HTSE hydrogen production and 124.15 $/tCO2 at energy demands of 31.67 kWh/tCO2 and 126.33 kWh/tCO2 thermal for carbon capture; parameters with most impact on levelised costs are air intake and steam feed for LCOD and LCOH respectively. Both levelised costs i.e. LCOD and LCOH would decrease with the production scale. The study implies that an integrated system of DACC and HTSE provided the best cost-benefit results however the cost-benefit analysis is heavily subjective to geography politics and grid demand.

Liquid hydrogen storage is an important way of hydrogen storage and transportation which greatly improves the storage and transportation efficiency due to the high energy density but at the same time brings new safety hazards. In this study the liquid hydrogen leakage in the storage area of a hydrogen production station is numerically simulated. The effects of ambient wind direction wind speed leakage mass flow rate and the mass fraction of gas phase at the leakage port on the diffusion behavior of the liquid hydrogen leakage were investigated. The results show that the ambient wind direction directly determines the direction of liquid hydrogen leakage diffusion. The wind speed significantly affects the diffusion distance. When the wind speed is 6 m/s the diffusion distance of the flammable hydrogen cloud reaches 40.08 m which is 2.63 times that under windless conditions. The liquid hydrogen leakage mass flow rate and the mass fraction of the gas phase have a greater effect on the volume of the flammable hydrogen cloud. As the leakage mass flow rate increased from 5.15 kg/s to 10 kg/s the flammable hydrogen cloud volume increased from 5734.31 m3 to 10305.5 m3 . The installation of a barrier wall in front of the leakage port can limit the horizontal diffusion of the flammable hydrogen cloud elevate the diffusion height and effectively reduce the volume of the flammable hydrogen cloud. This study can provide theoretical support for the construction and operation of hydrogen production stations.

Following the introduction of the EU’s Hydrogen Strategy in 2020 as part of the European Green Deal some EU member states have deployed a very active hydrogen diplomacy. Germany The Netherlands and Belgium have been the most active ones establishing no less than 40 bilateral hydrogen trade partnerships with 30 potential export countries in the last three years. However concerns have been voiced about whether such hydrogen trade relationships can be economically feasible geopolitically wise environmentally sustainable and socially just. This article therefore evaluates these partnerships considering three risk dimensions: economic political and sustainability (covering both environmental and justice) risks. The analysis reveals that the selection of partner countries entails significant trade-offs. Four groups of partner countries can be identified based on their respective risk profile: “Last Resorts” “Volatile Ventures” “Strategic Gambits” and “Trusted Friends”. Strikingly less than one-third of the agreements are concluded with countries that fall within the “Trusted Friends” category which have the lowest overall risk profile. These findings show the need for policy makers to think much more strategically about which partnerships to pursue and to confront tough choices about which risks and trade-offs they are willing to accept.

This manuscript contributes to understanding the role of hydrogen in different materials emphasizing polymers and composite materials to increase hydrogen storage capacity in those materials. Hydrogen storage is critical in advancing and optimizing sustainable energy solutions that are essential for improving their performance. Capillary arrays which offer increased surface area and optimized storage geometries present a promising avenue for enhancing hydrogen uptake. This work evaluates various polymers and glass for their mechanical properties and strength with 700 bar inner pressure loads within capillary tubes. A theoretical mathematical approach was employed to quantify the impact of material properties on storage capacity. Our results demonstrate that certain polymers (e.g. Zylon AS Dyneema SK99) and glass types (S-2 Glass) exhibit superior hydrogen storage potential due to their enhanced strength and low density. These findings suggest that integrating the proposed materials into capillary array systems can significantly improve hydrogen storage efficiency (15–37 wt.% and 37–40 g/L) making them viable candidates for next-generation energy storage systems. This study provides valuable insights into material selection and structural design strategies for high-capacity hydrogen storage technologies.

Following a desktop study undertaken in 2021 to identify hazard scenarios associated with the use of liquid and compressed hydrogen on commercial shipping Shell has started a programme of large-scale experiments on the consequences of a release of liquid hydrogen. This work will compliment on-going research Shell has sponsored within several joint industry projects but will also address immediate concerns that the maritime industry has for the transportation of liquid hydrogen (LH2). This paper will describe the first phase of experiments involving the release of LH2 onto various substrates as well as dispersion across an instrumented test pad. These results will be used to address the following uncertainties in risk assessments within the hydrogen economy such as (1) Quantify the impact of low wind speed and high humidity on the buoyancy of both a passive and momentum jet dispersion cloud (2) Gather additional data on liquid hydrogen jet fires (3) Understand the likelihood for the formation of a sustained pool of hydrogen (4) Characterise materials especially passive fire protective coatings that are exposed to LH2. Not only will these experiments generate validation data to provide confidence in the Shell consequence tool FRED but they will also be used by Shell to support updates and new regulations developed by the International Maritime Organisation as it seeks to reduce CO2 intensity in the maritime industry.

The global energy landscape is rapidly shifting toward cleaner lower-carbon electricity generation necessitating a transition to alternate energy sources. Hydrogen particularly green hydrogen looks to be a significant solution for facilitating this transformation as it is produced by water electrolysis with renewable energy sources such as solar irradiations wind speed and biomass residuals. Traditional energy systems are costly and produce energy slowly due to unpredictability in resource supply. To address this challenge this work provides a novel technique that integrates a multi-renewable energy system using multi objective optimization algorithm to meets the machine learning-based forecasted load model. Several forecasting models including Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average(ARIMA) Random Forest and Long Short-Term Memory Recurrent Neural Network (LSTMRNN) are assessed for develop the statistical metrics values such as RMSE MAE and MAPE. The selected Non-Sorting Moth Flame Optimization (NSMFO) algorithm demonstrates technological prowess in efficiently achieving global optimization particularly when handling multiple objective functions. This integrated method shows enormous promise in technological economic and environmental terms emphasizing its ability to promote energy sustainability targets.

A unique hydrogen leak detection strategy is the use of powerless indicator wraps for fittings and other pneumatic elements within a hydrogen facility. One transduction mechanism of such indicators is a color change that is induced by a reaction between a pigment and released hydrogen. This is an effective way to detect hydrogen leaks and to identify their source before they become a safety event however this technology requires visual (manual) inspection to identify a color change or leak. One improvement in this strategy would be to improve the communication of the visual response to an end-user. Element One (E1) has previously developed and introduced DetecTape® a self-fusing silicone non-reversible hydrogen leak detecting tape for application to potential leak sites in hydrogen piping valves and fittings and it has been successfully commercialized with excellent feedback. Element One’s sensors can be fabricated using either pigments or thin films which both change color and conductivity. Neither change requires an external power source. The conductivity change may be communicated as a wireless transmission such as passive radio frequency identification devices (RFID) to an appropriate receiving system where it may be remotely monitored to achieve higher levels of safety and reliability at low cost. Element One will report on its recent progress in the commercial development of remotely monitored hydrogen leak detection using several wireless protocols including passive RFID.

Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs) provide significant environmental benefits. Integrating dual-motor coupling powertrains (DMCPs) further enhances efficiency and dynamic performance. This article proposes an energy management strategy (EMS) for the hydrogen fuel cell/battery/super-capacitor system in an HFCEV with DMCP. Model predictive control (MPC) is adopted as the framework to optimize economic performance defined in this study as the hydrogen consumption cost and fuel cell degradation cost. To improve the prediction horizon and accuracy the torque split ratio for two varying permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) and the corresponding mode switching rules of the vehicle are initially established. Subsequently a combination of Dynamic Programming (DP) and MPC is selected as the framework utilizing a Dung Beetle Optimizer (DBO)-optimized Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (BiLSTM) network to refine the predictive model. Finally comparisons with other predictive models and commonly used control strategies demonstrate that the proposed EMS notably improves economic performance.

The HyDeploy2 project seeks to address a key issue for UK energy customers: how to reduce the carbon they emit in heating their homes. The UK has a world class gas grid delivering heat conveniently and safely to more than 83% of homes. Emissions can be reduced by lowering the carbon content of gas through blending with hydrogen. This delivers carbon savings without customers requiring disruptive and expensive changes in their homes. It also provides the platform for deeper carbon savings by enabling wider adoption of hydrogen across the energy system.