Policy & Socio-Economics
Role of batteries and fuel cells in achieving Net Zero: Session 2
Mar 2021
Publication
The House of Lords Science and Technology Committee will hear from leading researchers about anticipated developments in batteries and fuel cells over the next ten years that could contribute to meeting the net-zero target.
The Committee continues its inquiry into the Role of batteries and fuel cells in achieving Net Zero. It will ask a panel of experts about batteries hearing about the current state-of-the-art in technologies that are currently in deployment primarily lithium-ion batteries. It will also explore the potential of next generation technologies currently in development and the challenges in scaling them up to manufacture.
The Committee will then question a second panel about fuel cells hearing about the different types available and their applications. It will explore challenges that need to be overcome in the development of the technology and will consider the UK’s international standing in the sector.
Meeting details
At 10.00am: Oral evidence
Professor Serena Corr Chair in Functional Nanomaterials and Director of Research Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering at University of Sheffield
Professor Paul Shearing Professor in Chemical Engineering at University College London
Dr Jerry Barker Founder and Chief Technology Officer at Faradion Limited
Dr Melanie Loveridge Associate Professor Warwick Manufacturing Group at University of Warwick
At 11.00am: Oral evidence
Professor Andrea Russell Professor of Physical Electrochemistry at University of Southampton
Professor Anthony Kucernak Professor of Physical Chemistry Faculty of Natural Sciences at Imperial College London
Professor John Irvine Professor School of Chemistry at University of St Andrews
Possible questions
Parliament TV video of the meeting
This is part two of a three part enquiry.
Part one can be found here and part three can be found here.
The Committee continues its inquiry into the Role of batteries and fuel cells in achieving Net Zero. It will ask a panel of experts about batteries hearing about the current state-of-the-art in technologies that are currently in deployment primarily lithium-ion batteries. It will also explore the potential of next generation technologies currently in development and the challenges in scaling them up to manufacture.
The Committee will then question a second panel about fuel cells hearing about the different types available and their applications. It will explore challenges that need to be overcome in the development of the technology and will consider the UK’s international standing in the sector.
Meeting details
At 10.00am: Oral evidence
Professor Serena Corr Chair in Functional Nanomaterials and Director of Research Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering at University of Sheffield
Professor Paul Shearing Professor in Chemical Engineering at University College London
Dr Jerry Barker Founder and Chief Technology Officer at Faradion Limited
Dr Melanie Loveridge Associate Professor Warwick Manufacturing Group at University of Warwick
At 11.00am: Oral evidence
Professor Andrea Russell Professor of Physical Electrochemistry at University of Southampton
Professor Anthony Kucernak Professor of Physical Chemistry Faculty of Natural Sciences at Imperial College London
Professor John Irvine Professor School of Chemistry at University of St Andrews
Possible questions
- What contribution are battery and fuel cell technologies currently making towards decarbonization in the UK?
- What advances do we expect to see in battery and fuel cell technologies and over what timeframes?
- How quickly can UK battery and fuel cell manufacture be scaled up to meet electrification demands?
- What are the challenges facing technological innovation and deployment in heavy transport?
- Are there any sectors where battery and fuel cell technologies are not currently used but could contribute to decarbonisation?
- What are the life cycle environmental impacts of batteries and fuel cells?
Parliament TV video of the meeting
This is part two of a three part enquiry.
Part one can be found here and part three can be found here.
2020 It's Time To Get Real
Mar 2020
Publication
Gi Editor Sharon Baker-Hallam sits down with Chris Stark CEO of the Committee on Climate Change to talk about this year’s Sir Denis Rooke Memorial Lecture the economic opportunities to be found in going green and why 2020 is a critical year in the ongoing battle against rising global temperatures
Unpacking Leadership-driven Global Scenarios Towards the Paris Agreement: Report Prepared for the UK Committee on Climate Change
Dec 2020
Publication
Outline
This independent report by Vivid Economics and University College London was commissioned to support the Climate Change Committee’s (CCC) 2020 report The Sixth Carbon Budget -The path to Net Zero. This research provided supporting information for Chapter 7 of the CCC’s report which considered the UK’s contribution to the global goals of the Paris Agreement.
Key recommendations
The report models ‘leadership-driven’ global scenarios that could reduce global emissions rapidly to Net Zero and analyses the levers available to developed countries such as the UK to help accelerate various key aspects of the required global transition.
It highlights a set of opportunities for the UK alongside other developed countries to help assist global decarbonisation efforts alongside achieving it’s domestic emissions reduction targets
This independent report by Vivid Economics and University College London was commissioned to support the Climate Change Committee’s (CCC) 2020 report The Sixth Carbon Budget -The path to Net Zero. This research provided supporting information for Chapter 7 of the CCC’s report which considered the UK’s contribution to the global goals of the Paris Agreement.
Key recommendations
The report models ‘leadership-driven’ global scenarios that could reduce global emissions rapidly to Net Zero and analyses the levers available to developed countries such as the UK to help accelerate various key aspects of the required global transition.
It highlights a set of opportunities for the UK alongside other developed countries to help assist global decarbonisation efforts alongside achieving it’s domestic emissions reduction targets
Options for Multilateral Initiatives to Close the Global 2030 Climate Ambition and Action Gap - Policy Field Synthetic E-fuels
Jan 2021
Publication
Achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement requires increased global climate action especially towards the production and use of synthetic e-fuels. This paper focuses on aviation and maritime transport and the role of green hydrogen for indirect electrification of industry sectors. Based on a sound analysis of existing multilateral cooperation the paper proposes four potential initiatives to increase climate ambition of the G20 countries in the respective policy field: a Sustainable e-Kerosene Alliance a Sustainable e-fuel Alliance for Maritime Shipping a Hard-to-Abate Sector Partnership and a Global Supply-demand-partnership.
The full report can be found here on the Umweltbundesamt website
The full report can be found here on the Umweltbundesamt website
Economic and Technical Analysis of Power to Gas Factory Taking Karamay as an Example
May 2022
Publication
Power to gas (PTG) refers to the technology of converting power into energy-storage gas which can absorb excess power when there is excess power and release energy-storage gas when needed. Based on the carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emission of Karamay City in Northwest China this study designed a process flow of the CO2 absorption process and the hydrogen and CO2 methanation process in PTG technology. The results show that the efficiency of the CO2 absorption process was 91.5% and the methanation efficiency was 77.5%. The heat recovery module was set during the process and the total heat recovered was 17.85 MW. The cost of producing synthetic natural gas (SNG) in the PTG factory was 1782 USD/ton. In terms of cost the cost of hydrogen production from electrolyzed water accounted for the largest proportion. In terms of product profit the sale of pure oxygen was the largest part of the profit. At present the carbon emission reduction index profit brought by SNG production accounted for a small proportion. In the future with technological progress industrial upgrading and the improvement in the carbon trading market PTG technology is expected to become one of the ways to achieve carbon-emission-reduction targets.
Carbons Formed in Methane Thermal and Thermocatalytic Decomposition Processes: Properties and Applications
Jun 2021
Publication
The hydrogen economy will play a key role in future energy systems. Several thermal and catalytic methods for hydrogen production have been presented. In this review methane thermocatalytic and thermal decomposition into hydrogen gas and solid carbon are considered. These processes known as the thermal decomposition of methane (TDM) and thermocatalytic decomposition (TCD) of methane respectively appear to have the greatest potential for hydrogen production. In particular the focus is on the different types and properties of carbons formed during the decomposition processes. The applications for carbons are also investigated.
The Role of Hydrogen in Powering Industry: APPG on Hydrogen report
Jul 2021
Publication
The APPG on Hydrogen has published its report urging the Government to deliver beyond its existing net zero commitments and set ambitious hydrogen targets in forthcoming strategies to reach net zero by 2050.
The All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) on Hydrogen’s report on the role of ‘Hydrogen in powering industry’ sets out 10 recommendations to support and accelerate the growth of the UK’s hydrogen sector and enable a sustainable energy transition.
The All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) on Hydrogen’s report on the role of ‘Hydrogen in powering industry’ sets out 10 recommendations to support and accelerate the growth of the UK’s hydrogen sector and enable a sustainable energy transition.
- The Government must continue to expand beyond its existing commitments of 5GW production in the forthcoming Hydrogen Strategy.
- Any forthcoming Government and devolved policies must be complementary of the wider UK low-carbon commitments.
- Industrial clusters should be prioritised for hydrogen use and will be the key catalyst for driving forward the UK’s decarbonisation of industry.
- The Government must commit to incentivising hydrogen production within the UK as opposed to importing this.
- The Government must align hydrogen production pathways with nuclear technology to enhance hydrogen production.
- The Government must develop a UK wide hydrogen network to support the transport sector including a larger-scale implementation of hydrogen refuelling stations.
- Regulators must act quickly to update energy regulations and guidance to support hydrogen’s role in powering industry.
- For hydrogen to expand in the UK a technology neutral approach is required for all types of energy systems.
- Significant and long-term financial support is required for the development deployment and operation of hydrogen technologies.
- Ofgem must ensure the hydrogen market is subject to effective competition to drive down prices for consumers.
Technology Investment Roadmap- Global Leadership in Low Emissions Technologies
Sep 2020
Publication
Australia’s Technology Investment Roadmap is a strategy to accelerate development and commercialisation of low emissions technologies.
Annual low emissions statements are key milestones of the roadmap process. These statements prioritise low emissions technologies with potential to deliver the strongest economic and emissions reduction outcomes for Australia. They focus government investment on new and emerging technologies.
In this Statement
The first Low Emissions Technology Statement presents a vision of a prosperous Australia recognised as a global low emissions technology leader.
Annual low emissions statements are key milestones of the roadmap process. These statements prioritise low emissions technologies with potential to deliver the strongest economic and emissions reduction outcomes for Australia. They focus government investment on new and emerging technologies.
In this Statement
The first Low Emissions Technology Statement presents a vision of a prosperous Australia recognised as a global low emissions technology leader.
- priority technologies and economic stretch goals
- Australia’s big technology challenges and opportunities
- Technology Investment Framework
- monitoring transparency and impact evaluation
Technology Investment Roadmap First Low Emissions Technology Statement – 2020 Global Leadership in Low Emissions Technologies
Sep 2020
Publication
Australia’s Technology Investment Roadmap is a strategy to accelerate development and commercialisation of low emissions technologies.
Annual low emissions statements are key milestones of the roadmap process. These statements prioritise low emissions technologies with potential to deliver the strongest economic and emissions reduction outcomes for Australia. They focus government investment on new and emerging technologies.
In this Statement
The first Low Emissions Technology Statement presents a vision of a prosperous Australia recognised as a global low emissions technology leader
Annual low emissions statements are key milestones of the roadmap process. These statements prioritise low emissions technologies with potential to deliver the strongest economic and emissions reduction outcomes for Australia. They focus government investment on new and emerging technologies.
In this Statement
The first Low Emissions Technology Statement presents a vision of a prosperous Australia recognised as a global low emissions technology leader
- priority technologies and economic stretch goals
- Australia’s big technology challenges and opportunities
- Technology Investment Framework
- monitoring transparency and impact evaluation
Greenhouse Gas Abatement in EUROPE—A Scenario-Based, Bottom-Up Analysis Showing the Effect of Deep Emission Mitigation on the European Energy System
Feb 2022
Publication
Greenhouse gas emissions need to be drastically reduced to mitigate the environmental impacts caused by climate change and to lead to a transformation of the European energy system. A model landscape consisting of four final energy consumption sector models with high spatial (NUTS-3) and temporal (hourly) resolution and the multi-energy system model ISAaR is extended and applied to investigate the transformation pathway of the European energy sector in the deep emission mitigation scenario solidEU. The solidEU scenario describes not only the techno-economic but also the socio-political contexts and it includes the EU27 + UK Norway and Switzerland. The scenario analysis shows that volatile renewable energy sources (vRES) dominate the energy system in 2050. In addition the share of flexible sector coupling technologies increases to balance electricity generation from vRES. Seasonal differences are balanced by hydrogen storage with a seasonal storage profile. The deployment rates of vRES in solidEU show that a fast profound energy transition is necessary to achieve European climate protection goals.
H2ero Net Zero: Hydrogen Europe Position Paper on the Fit for 55 Package
Jun 2021
Publication
Hydrogen has seen unprecedented development in the year 2020. From innovative niche technology it is fast becoming a systemic element in the European Union’s (EU) efforts to transition to a climate-neutral society in 2050. It will become a crucial energy vector and the other leg of the energy transition – alongside renewable electricity – by replacing coal oil and gas across different segments of the economy. The rapid development of hydrogen is important for meeting the EU’s climate objectives and preserving and enhancing the EU’s industrial and economic competitiveness securing jobs and value creation in this high-tech sector.
Europe is currently leading in hydrogen technology and European companies and knowledge institutions can be instrumental in advancing technological developments and industrial scale-up. It is imperative that Europe maintains this leadership position and seizes the current momentum for hydrogen technologies. The EU is well placed to become the birthplace of a global hydrogen economy denominated in Euro currency.
It is time that hydrogen moves from an afterthought to a central pillar of the energy system. The “Fit for 55 Package” presents a unique opportunity to begin putting into place a concrete and fit for purpose framework for the development of a clean hydrogen economy. In this paper you will find Hydrogen Europe’s recommendations on how hydrogen can:
Europe is currently leading in hydrogen technology and European companies and knowledge institutions can be instrumental in advancing technological developments and industrial scale-up. It is imperative that Europe maintains this leadership position and seizes the current momentum for hydrogen technologies. The EU is well placed to become the birthplace of a global hydrogen economy denominated in Euro currency.
It is time that hydrogen moves from an afterthought to a central pillar of the energy system. The “Fit for 55 Package” presents a unique opportunity to begin putting into place a concrete and fit for purpose framework for the development of a clean hydrogen economy. In this paper you will find Hydrogen Europe’s recommendations on how hydrogen can:
- Unleash the potential of renewables.
- Bring “efficiency” to the energy “system” of the future.
- Enable a carbon-neutral transport system.
Australian and Global Hydrogen Demand Growth Scenario Analysis
Nov 2019
Publication
Deloitte was commissioned by the National Hydrogen Taskforce established by the COAG Energy Council to undertake an Australian and Global Growth Scenario Analysis. Deloitte analysed the current global hydrogen industry its development and growth potential and how Australia can position itself to best capitalise on the newly forming industry.
To conceptualise the possibilities for Australia Deloitte created scenarios to model the realm of possibilities for Australia out to 2050 focusing on identifying the scope and distribution of economic and environmental costs and benefits from Australian hydrogen industry development. This work will aid in analysing the opportunities and challenges to hydrogen industry development in Australia and the actions needed to overcome barriers to industry growth manage risks and best drive industry development.
The full report is available on the Deloitte website at this link
To conceptualise the possibilities for Australia Deloitte created scenarios to model the realm of possibilities for Australia out to 2050 focusing on identifying the scope and distribution of economic and environmental costs and benefits from Australian hydrogen industry development. This work will aid in analysing the opportunities and challenges to hydrogen industry development in Australia and the actions needed to overcome barriers to industry growth manage risks and best drive industry development.
The full report is available on the Deloitte website at this link
Hydrogen Act Towards the creation of the European Hydrogen Economy
Apr 2021
Publication
It is time that hydrogen moves from an afterthought to a central pillar of the energy system and its key role in delivering climate neutrality means it merits a dedicated framework. It becomes paramount to allow hydrogen to express its full potential as the other leg of the energy mobility and industry transitions. The proposed “Hydrogen Act” is not a single piece of legislation it is intended to be a vision for an umbrella framework aimed at harmonising and integrating all separate hydrogen-related actions and legislations. It focuses on infrastructure and market aspects describing three phases of development: the kick-start phase the ramp-up phase and the market-growth phase.
Hydrogen in Grid Balancing: The European Market Potential for Pressurized Alkaline Electrolyzers
Jan 2022
Publication
To limit the global temperature change to no more than 2 ◦C by reducing global emissions the European Union (EU) set up a goal of a 20% improvement on energy efficiency a 20% cut of greenhouse gas emissions and a 20% share of energy from renewable sources by 2020 (10% share of renewable energy (RE) specifically in the transport sector). By 2030 the goal is a 27% improvement in energy efficiency a 40% cut of greenhouse gas emissions and a 27% share of RE. However the integration of RE in energy system faces multiple challenges. The geographical distribution of energy supply changes significantly the availability of the primary energy source (wind solar water) and is the determining factor rather than where the consumers are. This leads to an increasing demand to match supply and demand for power. Especially intermittent RE like wind and solar power face the issue of energy production unrelated to demand (issue of excess energy production beyond demand and/or grid capacity) and forecast errors leading to an increasing demand for grid services like balancing power. Megawatt electrolyzer units (beyond 3 MW) can provide a technical solution to convert large amounts of excess electricity into hydrogen for industrial applications substitute for natural gas or the decarbonization of the mobility sector. The demonstration of successful MW electrolyzer operation providing grid services under dynamic conditions as request by the grid can broaden the opportunities of new business models that demonstrate the profitability of an electrolyzer in these market conditions. The aim of this work is the demonstration of a technical solution utilizing Pressurized Alkaline Electrolyzer (PAE) technology for providing grid balancing services and harvesting Renewable Energy Sources (RES) under realistic circumstances. In order to identify any differences between local market and grid requirements the work focused on a demonstration site located in Austria deemed as a viable business case for the operation of a largescale electrolyzer. The site is adapted to specific local conditions commonly found throughout Europe. To achieve this this study uses a market-based solution that aims at providing value-adding services and cash inflows stemming from the grid balancing services it provides. Moreover the work assesses the viability of various business cases by analyzing (qualitatively and quantitatively) additional business models (in terms of business opportunities/energy source potential grid service provision and hydrogen demand) and analyzing the value and size of the markets developing recommendations for relevant stakeholder to decrease market barriers.
Planning and Operational Aspects of Individual and Clustered Multi-Energy Microgrid Options
Feb 2022
Publication
With the restructuring of the power system household-level end users are becoming more prominent participants by integrating renewable energy sources and smart devices and becoming flexible prosumers. The use of microgrids is a way of aggregating local end users into a single entity and catering for the consumption needs of shareholders. Various microgrid architectures are the result of the local energy community following different decarbonisation strategies and are frequently not optimised in terms of size technology or other influential factors for energy systems. This paper discusses the operational and planning aspects of three different microgrid setups looking at them as individual market participants within a local electricity market. This kind of implementation enables mutual trade between microgrids without additional charges where they can provide flexibility and balance for one another. The developed models take into account multiple uncertainties arising from photovoltaic production day-ahead electricity prices and electricity load. A total number of nine case studies and sensitivity analyses are presented from daily operation to the annual planning perspective. The systematic study of different microgrid setups operational principles/goals and cooperation mechanisms provides a clear understanding of operational and planning benefits: the electrification strategy of decarbonising microgrids outperforms gas and hydrogen technologies by a significant margin. The value of coupling different types of multi-energy microgrids with the goal of joint market participation was not proven to be better on a yearly level compared to the operation of same technology-type microgrids. Additional analyses focus on introducing distribution and transmission fees to an MG cooperation model and allow us to come to the conclusion of there being a minor impact on the overall operation.
Challenges to the Future of LNG: Decarbonisation, Affordability, and Profitability
Oct 2019
Publication
Decarbonisation should be very much on the radar of new LNG projects currently taking FID commissioning around 2024-25 and planning to operate up to 2050. The LNG community needs to replace an `advocacy’ message – based on the generality of emissions from combustion of natural gas being lower than from other fossil fuels – with certified data on carbon and methane emissions from specific elements of the value chain for individual projects. As carbon reduction targets tighten over the coming decade LNG cargoes which do not have value chain emissions certified by accredited authorities or which fail to meet defined emission levels run the risk of progressively being deemed to have a lower commercial value and eventually being excluded from jurisdictions with the strictest standards. There will be no place in this process for confidentiality; nothing less than complete transparency of data and methodologies will be acceptable.<br/>In relation to affordability prospects for new projects look much better than they did three years ago. Cost estimates for most new projects suggest that they will be able to deliver profitably to most established and anticipated import markets at or below the wholesale prices prevailing in those markets over the past decade although affordability in south Asian countries may be challenging. But new projects need to factor in costs related to future decarbonisation requirements in both exporting and importing countries. To the extent that LNG suppliers can meet standards through relatively low-cost offsets – forest projects low-cost biogas and biomethane – this may not greatly impact their commercial viability. However any requirement to transform methane into hydrogen with CCS in either the exporting or importing country would substantially impact project economics and the affordability of LNG relative to other energy choices.
Analysis of Strategic Directions in Sustainable Hydrogen Investment Decisions
Jun 2020
Publication
This study seeks to find the appropriate strategies necessary to make sustainable and effective hydrogen energy investments. Within this scope nine different criteria are defined regarding social managerial and financial factors. A hesitant interval-valued intuitionistic fuzzy (IVIF) decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL) methodology is considered to calculate the degree of importance of the criteria. Additionally impact relation maps are also generated to visualize the causality relationship between the factors. The findings indicate that the technical dimension has the greatest importance in comparison to managerial and financial factors. Furthermore it is also concluded that storage and logistics research and development and technological infrastructure are the most significant factors to be considered when defining hydrogen energy investment strategies. Hence before investing in hydrogen energy necessary actions should be taken to minimize the storage and logistic costs. Among them building the production site close to the usage area will contribute significantly to this purpose. In this way possible losses during the transportation of hydrogen can be minimized. Moreover it is essential to identify the lowest-cost hydrogen storage method by carrying out the necessary research and development activities thereby increasing the sustainability and effectiveness of hydrogen energy investment projects.
EU Hydrogen Vision: Regulatory Opportunities and Challenges
Sep 2020
Publication
This Insight provides an overview of the recent EU Commission Hydrogen Strategy Energy System Integration Strategy and Industrial Strategy focusing on regulatory issues impacting hydrogen. It looks at the proposed classification and preferences for different sources of hydrogen financial and regulatory support for development of hydrogen supply demand and infrastructure as well as potential regulation of hydrogen markets. Whilst the Hydrogen Strategy underlines the need for hydrogen to decarbonise the economy the Insight concludes that the EU has shown a clear preference for hydrogen based on renewable electricity at the expense of low carbon hydrogen from natural gas even though it recognises the need for low carbon hydrogen. In addition further detail is required on the support mechanisms and regulatory framework if development of new hydrogen value chain is to succeed. Lastly there is little sign that the Commission recognises the change in regulatory approach from the current natural gas framework which will be needed because of the different challenges facing the development of a hydrogen market.
Paper can be downloaded on their website
Paper can be downloaded on their website
Policy-driven, Narrative-based Evidence Gathering: UK Priorities for Decarbonisation Through Biomass
May 2015
Publication
Evidence-based policy-making has been a much-debated concept. This paper builds on various insights for a novel perspective: policy-driven narrative-based evidence gathering. In a case study of UK priority setting for bioenergy innovation documents and interviews were analysed to identify links between diagnoses of the problem societal visions policy narratives and evidence gathering. This process is illuminated by the theoretical concept of sociotechnical imaginaries—technoscientific projects which the state should promote for a feasible desirable future. Results suggest that evidence has been selectively generated and gathered within a specific future vision whereby bioenergy largely provides an input-substitute within the incumbent centralised infrastructure. Such evidence is attributed to an external expertise thus helping to legitimise the policy framework. Evidence has helped to substantiate policy commitments to expand bioenergy. The dominant narrative has been reinforced by the government’s multi-stakeholder consultation favouring the incumbent industry and by incentive structures for industry co-investment.
100% Renewable Energy in Japan
Feb 2022
Publication
Low-cost solar photovoltaics and wind offer a reliable and affordable pathway to deep decarbonization of energy which accounts for three quarters of global emissions. However large-scale deployment of solar photovoltaics and wind requires space and may be challenging for countries with dense population and high per capita energy consumption. This study investigates the future role of renewable energy in Japan as a case study. A 40-year hourly energy balance model is presented of a hypothetical 100% renewable Japanese electricity system using representative demand data and historical meteorological data. Pumped hydro energy storage high voltage interconnection and dispatchable capacity (existing hydro and biomass and hydrogen energy produced from curtailed electricity) are included to balance variable generation and demand. Differential evolution is used to find the least-cost solution under various constraints. This study shows that Japan has 14 times more solar and offshore wind resources than needed to supply 100% renewable electricity and vast capacity for off-river pumped hydro energy storage. Assuming significant cost reductions of solar photovoltaics and offshore wind towards global norms in the coming decades driven by large-scale deployment locally and global convergence of renewable generation costs the levelized cost of electricity is found to be US$86/Megawatt-hour for a solar-dominated system and US$110/Megawatt-hour for a wind-dominated system. These costs can be compared with 2020 average system prices on the spot market in Japan of US$102/Megawatt-hour. Cost of balancing 100% renewable electricity in Japan ranges between US$20–27/Megawatt-hour for a range of scenarios. In summary Japan can be self-sufficient for electricity supply at competitive costs provided that the barriers to the mass deployment of solar photovoltaics and offshore wind in Japan are overcome.
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