Policy & Socio-Economics

Climate policy will inevitably lead to the stranding of fossil energy assets such as production and transport assets for coal oil and natural gas. Resourcerich developing countries are particularly aected as they have a higher risk of asset stranding due to strong fossil dependencies and wider societal consequences beyond revenue disruption. However there is only little academic and political awareness of the challenge to manage the asset stranding in these countries as research on transition risk like asset stranding is still in its infancy. We provide a research framework to identify wider societal consequences of fossil asset stranding. We apply it to a case study of Nigeria. Analyzing dierent policy measures we argue that compensation payments come with implementation challenges. Instead of one policy alone to address asset stranding a problem-oriented mix of policies is needed. Renewable hydrogen and just energy transition partnerships can be a contribution to economic development and SDGs. However they can only unfold their potential if fair benefit sharing and an improvement to the typical institutional problems in resource-rich countries such as the lack of rule of law are achieved. We conclude with presenting a future research agenda for the global community and acade

By passing the delegated acts supplementing the revised Renewable Energy Directive the European Commission has recently set a regulatory benchmark for the classifcation of green hydrogen in the European Union. Controversial reactions to the restricted power purchase for electrolyser operation refect the need for more clarity about the efects of the delegated acts on the cost and the renewable characteristics of green hydrogen. To resolve this controversy we compare diferent power purchase scenarios considering major uncertainty factors such as electricity prices and the availability of renewables in various European locations. We show that the permission for unrestricted electricity mix usage does not necessarily lead to an emission intensity increase partially debilitating concerns by the European Commission and could notably decrease green hydrogen production cost. Furthermore our results indicate that the transitional regulations adopted to support a green hydrogen production ramp-up can result in similar cost reductions and ensure high renewable electricity usage.

Opportunity for future green hydrogen development in Nepal comes with enduse infrastructural challenges. The heavy reliance of industries on fossil fuels (63.4%) despite the abundance of hydroelectricity poses an additional challenge to the green transition of Nepal. The presented work aims to study the possibility of storing and utilizing spilled hydroelectricity due to runoff rivers as a compatible alternative to imported petroleum fuels. This is achieved by converting green hydrogen from water electrolysis and carbon dioxide from carbon capture of hard-to-abate industries into synthetic methane for heating applications via the Sabatier process. An economy-of-scale study was conducted to identify the optimal scale for the reference case (Industries in Makwanpur District Nepal) for establishing the Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG) production industry. The technoeconomic assessment was carried out for pilot scale and reference scale production unit individually. Uncertainty and sensitivity analyses were performed to study the project profitability and the sensitivity of the parameters influencing the feasibility of the production plant. The reference scale for the production of Synthetic Natural Gas was determined to be 40 Tons Per Day (TPD) with a total capital investment of around 72.15 Million USD. Electricity was identified as the most sensitive parameter affecting the levelized cost of production (LCOP). The 40 TPD plant was found to be price competitive to LPG when electricity price is subsidized below 3.55 NPR/unit (2.7 c/unit) from 12 NPR/unit (9.2 c/unit). In the case of the 2 TPD plant for it to be profitable the price of electricity must be subsidized to well below 2 NPR/kWh. The study concludes that the possibility of SNG production in Nepal is profitable and price-competitive at large scales and at the same time limited by the low round efficiency due to conversion losses. Additionally it was observed that highly favorable conditions driven by government policies would be required for the pilot-scale SNG project to be feasible.

Global climate change caused by geological processes is one of the main causes of the 5 global mass extinctions in geological history. Human industrialization activities have caused serious damage to the ecosystem the greenhouse effect of atmospheric CO2 has intensified and the living environment is facing threats and challenges. Carbon neutrality is the active action and common goal of mankind in the face of the climate change crisis therefore probing into its theoretical and technological connotation scientific and technological innovation system has far-reaching significance and broad prospects. Studies indicate that (1) Carbon neutrality reflects the theoretical connotations of “energy science” and “carbon neutrality science” including technical connotations of carbon emission reduction zero carbon emission negative carbon emission and carbon trading. (2) Carbon neutrality spawns new industries such as carbon industry centering on CO2 capture utilization and storage (CCUS or CO2 capture and storage CCS) and hydrogen industry centering on green hydrogen. “Gray carbon” and “black carbon” are the two application attributes of CO2. “Carbonþ” “Carbon” and “Carbon¼” are three carbon-neutral products and technologies. (3) China faces three major challenges in achieving the goal of carbon neutrality: first energy transition is large in scale and the cycle is short; Second there are many problems in the process of energy transition such as security uncertainties economic utilization and unpredictable disruptive technologies; Third after transition we may face new key techno-logical “bottlenecks” and “broken chain” of key mineral resources. (4) Based on current knowledge to predict the top 10 disruptive technologies and industries in the energy field: underground coal gasification in-situ conversion process of medium and low-mature shale oil CCUS/CCS hydrogen energy and fuel cells bio-photovoltaic power generation space-based solar power generation optical storage smart micro-grid super energy storage controllable nuclear fusion wisdom energy Internet. Five strategic projects will be implemented including energy conservation and efficiency improvement carbon reduction and sequestration scientific and technological innovation emergency reserve and policy support. (5) In the future different types of energy will have different orientations. Coal will play the role of ensuring the national energy strategy “reserve” and “guarantee the bottom line”. Petroleum will play the role of ensuring national energy security “urgent need” and the “cornerstone” of raw materials in people's livelihood. Natural gas will play the role in ensuring national energy “safety” and “best partner” of new energy. New energy will play the role in ensuring the “replacement” and “main force” of the national energy strategy. (6) Carbon neutrality is a major practice of the green industrial revolution carbon reduction energy revolution and ecological technology revolution which will bring new and profound changes to human society the environment and the economy. (7) Carbon neutrality needs to follow the four principles of “disruptive breakthroughs in technology guarantee of energy security realization of economic feasibility and controllable social stability”. We should rely on technological innovation and management changes to ensure the realization of national energy “independence” and carbon neutrality goal and make China's contribution to the construction of a livable earth green development and ecological civilization.

Transforming Europe into a climate neutral economy and society by 2050 requires extraordinary efforts and the mobilisation of all sectors and economic actors coupled with all the creative and brain power one can imagine. Each sector has to fundamentally rethink the way it operates to ensure it can be transformed towards this new net-zero paradigm without jeopardising other environmental and societal objectives both within the EU and globally. Given the scale of the transformation ahead our ability to meet climate neutrality targets directly depends on our ability to innovate. In this context Research & Innovation programmes have a key role to play and it is crucial to ensure they are fit for purpose and well equipped to support the next wave of breakthrough innovations that will be required to achieve climate neutrality in the EU and globally by 2050. The objective of this study is to contribute to these strategic planning discussions by not only identifying high-risk and high-impact climate mitigation solutions but most importantly look beyond individual solutions and consider how systemic interactions of climate change mitigation approaches can be integrated in the development of R&I agendas.

Hydrogen is experiencing a resurgence in energy transition debates. Before representing a solution however the existing hydrogen economy is still a climate change headache: over 99 % of production depends on fossil fuels oil refining accounts for 42 % of demand and its transportation is intertwined with fossil infrastructure like natural gas pipelines. This article investigates the path-dependent dynamics shaping the hydrogen economy and its interconnections with the oil and gas industry. It draws on the global production networks (GPN) approach and political economy research to provide a comprehensive review of current and prospective enduses of hydrogen modes of transport networks of industrial actors and state strategies along the major production facilities and holders of intellectual property rights. The results presented in this article suggest that the superimposition of private agendas may jeopardise the viability of future energy systems and requires counterbalancing forces to override the negative consequences of path-dependent energy transitions.

Energy production and consumption are major contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions exacerbating one of the greatest challenges faced by modern societies: climate change. Thus societies must switch to more sustainable energy sources. Green hydrogen has emerged as a promising alternative energy carrier facilitating storage and utilization across various industries. However amidst different production processes solely sustainable electrolysis stands out as an environmentally benign production method. Hydrogen producers must prove provenance and sustainable production to regulatory bodies and hydrogen buyers to comply with the regulations for sustainable development. Blockchain provides a viable solution encompassing trustworthy and secure information sharing between untrusted partners. In this article we employ a design science research approach to develop a blockchain-based certification system (BLC-CS) for green hydrogen. Through collaboration with experts to gather requirements and conduct evaluations we design an artifact that streamlines the certification process for producers regulators and consumers. Our proposed solution facilitates information gathering verification and reporting contributing to the advancement of sustainable energy practices. We provide a comprehensive discussion of the BLC-CS’s feasibility for green hydrogen certification including technical extensions recommendations for practitioners and directions for future research.

The production of green hydrogen through electrolysis utilizing renewable energies is recognized as a pivotal element in the pursuit of decarbonization. In order to attain cost competitiveness for green hydrogen reasonable generation costs are imperative. To identify cost-effective import partners for Germany given its limited green hydrogen production capabilities this study undertakes an exhaustive techno-economic analysis to determine the potential Levelized Cost of Hydrogen in Germany Norway Spain Algeria Morocco and Egypt for the year 2050 which represents a critical milestone in European decarbonization efforts. Employing a stochastic approach with Monte Carlo simulations the paper marks a significant contribution for projecting future cost ranges acknowledging the multitude of uncertainties inherent in related cost parameters and emphasizing the importance of randomness in these assessments. Country-specific Weighted Average Cost of Capital are calculated in order to create a refined understanding of political and economic influences on cost formation rather than using a uniform value across all investigated nations. Key findings reveal that among the evaluated nations PV-based hydrogen emerges as the most cost-efficient alternative in all countries except Norway with Spain presenting the lowest Levelized Cost of Hydrogen at 1.66 €/kg to 3.12 €/kg followed by Algeria (1.72 €/kg to 3.23 €/kg) and Morocco (1.73 €/kg to 3.28 €/kg). Consequently for economically favorable import options Germany is advised to prioritize PV-based hydrogen imports from these countries. Additionally hydrogen derived from onshore wind in Norway (2.24 €/kg to 3.73 €/kg) offers a feasible import alternative. To ensure supply chain diversity and reduce dependency on a single source a mixed import strategy is advisable. Despite having the lowest electricity cost Egypt shows the highest Levelized Cost of Hydrogen primarily due to a significant Weighted Average Cost of Capital.

The defossilization of industry has far-reaching implications regarding the future demand for hydrogen and other forms of energy. This paper presents and applies a fundamental bottom-up model that relies on techno-economic data of industrial production processes. Its aim is to identify across a range of scenarios the most cost-effective low-carbon options considering a variety of production systems. Subsequently it derives the hydrogen and electricity demand that would result from the implementation of these least-cost low-carbon options in process industries in Germany. Aligning with the German government's target year for achieving climate neutrality this study’s reference year is 2045. The primary contribution lies in analyzing which hydrogen-based and direct electrification solutions would be cost-effective for a range of energy price levels under climate-neutral industrial production and what the resulting hydrogen and electricity demand would be. To this end the methodology of this paper comprises the following steps: selection of the relevant industries (I) definition of conventional reference production systems and their low-carbon options (II) investigation and processing of the techno-economic data of the standardized production systems (III) establishment of a scenario framework (IV) determination of the least-cost low-carbon solution of a conventional reference production system under the scenario assumptions made (V) and estimation of the resulting hydrogen and electricity demand (VI). According to the results the expected industrial hydrogen consumption in 2045 ranges from 255 TWh for higher hydrogen prices in or above the range of onshore wind-based green hydrogen supply costs to up to 542 TWh for very low hydrogen prices corresponding to typical blue hydrogen production costs. Meanwhile the direct electricity consumption of the process industries in the results ranges from 122 TWh for these rather low hydrogen prices to 368 TWh for the higher hydrogen prices in the region of or above the hydrogen supply costs from the electrolysis of energy from an onshore wind farm. Most of the break-even hydrogen prices that are relevant to the choice of low-carbon options are in the range of the benchmark purchase costs for blue hydrogen and green hydrogen produced from offshore wind power which span between €40 per MWh and €97 per MWh.

Japan has formulated a net-zero emissions target by 2050. Existing scenarios consistent with this target generally depend on carbon dioxide removal (CDR). In addition to domestic mitigation actions the import of low-carbon energy carriers such as hydrogen and synfuels and negative emissions credits are alternative options for achieving net-zero emissions in Japan. Although the potential and costs of these actions depend on global energy system transition characteristics which can potentially be informed by the global integrated assessment models they are not considered in current national scenario assessments. This study explores diverse options for achieving Japan's net-zero emissions target by 2050 using a national energy system model informed by international energy trade and emission credits costs estimated with a global energy system model. We found that demand-side electrification and approximately 100 Mt-CO2 per year of CDR implementation equivalent to approximately 10% of the current national CO2 emissions are essential across all net-zero emissions scenarios. Upscaling of domestically generated hydrogen-based alternative fuels and energy demand reduction can avoid further reliance on CDR. While imports of hydrogen-based energy carriers and emission credits are effective options annual import costs exceed the current cost of fossil fuel imports. In addition import dependency reaches approximately 50% in the scenario relying on hydrogen imports. This study highlights the importance of considering global trade when developing national net-zero emissions scenarios and describes potential new roles for global models.

The goal of achieving a zero-emission energy system by 2050 requires accurate energy planning to minimise the overall cost of the energy transition. Long-term energy models based on cost-optimal solutions are extremely dependent on the cost forecasts of different technologies. However such forecasts are inherently uncertain. The aim of the present work is to identify a cost-optimal pathway for the Italian energy system decarbonisation and assess how renewable cost scenarios can affect the optimal solution. The analysis has been carried out with the H2RES model a single-objective optimisation algorithm based on Linear Programming. Different cost scenarios for photovoltaics on-shore and off-shore wind power and lithium-ion batteries are simulated. Results indicate that a 100% renewable energy system in Italy is technically feasible. Power-to-X technologies are crucial for balancing purposes enabling a share of non-dispatchable generation higher than 90%. Renewable cost scenarios affect the energy mix however both on-shore and off-shore wind saturate the maximum capacity potential in almost all scenarios. Cost forecasts for lithium-ion batteries have a significant impact on their optimal capacity and the role of hydrogen. Indeed as battery costs rise fuel cells emerge as the main solution for balancing services. This study emphasises the importance of conducting cost sensitivity analyses in long-term energy planning. Such analyses can help to determine how changes in cost forecasts may affect the optimal strategies for decarbonising national energy systems.

The EAH team discuss Nataliya’s plan for a green Ukraine including working with the current government on the Hydrogen Road Map. We also get another example of incredible Ukrainian resilience and discuss its importance for the current and future energy system.

The podcast can be found on their website.

Green hydrogen a zero-carbon emission fuel has become a real competitor to transform the energy market thanks to improvements in the electrolysis process decreased costs and the presence of renewable energy resources. Energy industries have shown considerable progress in hydrogen production due to the incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) knowledge through algorithms AI-based models and data programs. These techniques can greatly enhance the production storage and transportation of hydrogen fuel. The main goal of this article is to demonstrate the recent technological advancements and the influence of various AI techniques algorithms and models on the hydrogen energy sector along with this further examination of the energy policies of countries like China Japan India and South Korea. The key challenges related to these energy policies are addressed through standardized datasets AI models and optimized environmental conditions. This paper serves as a valuable resource for researchers engineers and practitioners interested in applying cutting-edge technologies to enhance hydrogen safety systems. AI-based models contribute to the overall shift towards a sustainable energy future by enhancing efficiency reducing costs and facilitating hydrogen energy commerce for Asian countries. This study accelerates the global investigation and tremendous applications of sophisticated machine-learning methodologies for producing renewable green hydrogen.

For the second episode in this new season the team interviews Oghosa Erhahon to discuss hydrogen opportunities in Africa including the African Climate Summit in September and what to look forward to at COP28.

The podcast can be found on their website.

This report aims to summarise the status of the European hydrogen market landscape. It is based on the information available at the European Hydrogen Observatory (EHO) initiative the leading source of data on hydrogen in Europe exploring the basic concepts latest trends and role of hydrogen in the energy transition. The data presented in this report is based on research conducted until the end of September 2024. This report contains information on current hydrogen production and trade distribution and storage end-use cost and technology manufacturing as of the end of 2023 except if stated otherwise in Europe. A substantial portion of the data gathering was carried out within the framework of Hydrogen Europe's efforts for the European Hydrogen Observatory. Downloadable spreadsheets of the data can be accessed on the website: https://observatory.clean-hydrogen.europa.eu/. The production and trade section provides insights into hydrogen production capacity and production output by technology in Europe and into international hydrogen trade (export and import) to and between European countries. The section referring to distribution and storage presents the location and main attributes of operational dedicated hydrogen pipelines and storage facilities as well as publicly accessible and operational hydrogen refuelling stations in Europe. The end-use section provides information on annual hydrogen consumption per end-use in Europe the deployment of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles in Europe the current and future hydrogen Valleys in Europe and the leading scenarios for future hydrogen demand in Europe in 2030 2040 and 2050 by sector. The cost chapter offers a comprehensive examination of the levelised cost of hydrogen production by technology and country. This chapter also gives estimations of renewable hydrogen break-even prices for different end-use applications in addition to electrolyser cost components by technology. Finally a chapter on technologies manufacturing explores data on the European electrolyser manufacturing capacity and sales and the fuel cell market.

To address the global climate crisis maritime logistics are undergoing a transition away from fossil-based energy sources. The transition is envisaged to be both green (involving renewables) and digital (involving various kinds of digitalization). Much of the hope rests on the new hydrogen economy involving the build-up of infrastructure for hydrogen-derived alternative fuels such as methanol and ammonia. Indeed the new hydrogen economy is often portrayed as set to revolutionize maritime transport. The hope behind the hype reflects a belief in the performativity of hypes: some technological phenomenon will eventually materialise in innovation and business practices. In this paper we critically analyse the current hydrogen hype in the field of Finnish maritime logistics as a paradigmatic case of performative techno-optimism. Based on causal network analysis and thematic analysis of expert interviews and workshop data we argue that the phenomenon of performative techno-optimism is more nuanced than hitherto presented in the related literature. We showcase a variety of stances along a spectrum ranging from radical optimism to radical pessimism. Furthermore our causal network analysis indicates that the current green and digital transition of maritime transport is caught in a systemic catch-22: transitioning to alternative fuels in maritime logistics faces a lock-in of between overly cautious demand for alternative fuels leading to overly cautious investment in supply which only secures the modest demand. Finally our thematic analysis of techno-optimist stances suggests the following two major ways out of the systemic dilemma: large-scale technological innovations and global regulatory solutions.

Hydrogen Valley represents localised ecosystems that enable the integrated production storage distribution and utilisation of hydrogen to support the decarbonisation of the energy system. However planning such integrated systems necessitates a detailed evaluation of their interconnections with variable renewable generation sector coupling and system flexibility. The novelty of this work lies in addressing a critical gap in system-level modelling for Hydrogen Valleys by introducing an optimization-based framework to determine their optimal configuration. This study focuses on the scenario-based multiobjective design of local hydrogen energy systems considering renewable integration infrastructure deployment and sector coupling. We developed and simulated three scenarios based on varying hydrogen pathways and penetration levels using the EnergyPLAN model implemented through a custom MATLAB Toolbox. Several decision variables such as renewable energy capacity electrolyser size and hydrogen storage were optimised to minimise CO₂ emissions total annual system cost and critical excess electricity production simultaneously. The findings show that Hydrogen Valley deployment can reduce CO₂ emissions by up to 30 % triple renewable penetration in the primary energy supply and lower the levelized cost of hydrogen from 7.6 €/kg to 5.6 €/kg despite a moderate increase in the total cost of the system. The approach highlights the potential of sector coupling and Power-to-X technologies in enhancing system flexibility and supporting green hydrogen integration. The outcome of our research offers valuable insights for policymakers and planners seeking to align local hydrogen strategies with broader decarbonisation targets and regulatory frameworks.

Many countries of the Global South struggle to achieve inclusive growth paths despite investment in the exploitation of rich resources. Resource-based industrialization literature stresses the potential for achieving broader development effects via the development of production linkages with local enterprises. The focus lies on market-driven outsourcing dynamics that foster linkage development such as efficiency location-specific knowledge and technology and scale complexity. However little is known about the opportunity space for both policy making and local firms to create these linkages. To address this issue we incorporate the concept of change agency stemming from the path development literature into the discussion on production linkages to show how both (local) firm agency and system-level agency can achieve linkage creation for inclusive path transplantation. We illustrate the framework by scrutinizing the potential inclusion of solar energy companies in Namibia’s emerging green hydrogen economy. The study finds that while the potential for renewable energy companies in Namibia to participate in the value chain is limited an integrated bundle of measures relying on firm- and system-level agency could address peripheral contextual factors overcome entry barriers and leverage further potential for linkage creation in the solar energy sector: mobilizing the local workforce fostering inter-firm cooperation leveraging local advantages creating knowledge institutions enhancing the regulatory framework upgrading infrastructure and enforcing local content regulations.

Importing renewable energy to Europe may offer many potential benefits including reduced energy costs lower pressure on infrastructure development and less land use within Europe. However open questions remain: on the achievable cost reductions how much should be imported whether the energy vector should be electricity hydrogen or derivatives like ammonia or steel and their impact on Europe’s infrastructure needs. This study integrates a global energy supply chain model with a European energy system model to explore net-zero emission scenarios with varying import volumes costs and vectors. We find system cost reductions of 1-10% within import cost variations of ± 20% with diminishing returns for larger import volumes and a preference for methanol steel and hydrogen imports. Keeping some domestic power-to-X production is beneficial for integrating variable renewables leveraging local carbon sources and power-to-X waste heat. Our findings highlight the need for coordinating import strategies with infrastructure policy and reveal maneuvering space for incorporating non-cost decision factors.

This article explores how the implementation of solar PV and transportation infrastructure – grid or hydrogen pipeline – has implications for various aspects of security cooperation and geopolitical powershifts. Highlighting the emerging intra-European green hydrogen pipeline project H2Med we examine the Portuguese geopolitical ambitions related to their geographical advantage for solar PV energy production. Using media and document analysis we identified two main axes of solar PV implementation in Portugal – one centered on resilience and one on exports – and further explored underlying and resulting tensions in neighboring countries’ energy strategies and cleantech innovation policies. Our analysis revealed that policy prioritizations in solar PV diffusion result in unequal effects on resilience energy security and power shifts. In particular solar PV implementations such as individual to local or regional grid-based ‘prosumption’ setups result in notably different geopolitical effects compared to large-scale solar PV to green hydrogen-production for storage and export. Thereby emerging possibilities of storage and long-distance trade of renewable energies have more significant implications on geopolitics and energy security than what is typically recognized.

Green hydrogen is increasingly recognized as a pivotal energy carrier in the global transition toward low-carbon energy systems. Beyond its established applications in industry and transportation the development of green hydrogen could accelerate its integration into the power generation sector thus enabling a more sustainable deployment of renewable energy sources. Vietnam endowed with abundant renewable energy potential—particularly solar and wind—has a strong foundation for green hydrogen. This emerging energy source holds significant potential to support the strategic objectives in recent national energy policies aligning with the country’s socio-economic development. However despite this promise the integration of green hydrogen into Vietnam’s energy system remains limited. This paper provides a critical review of the current landscape of green hydrogen in Vietnam examining both the opportunities and challenges associated with its production and deployment. Special attention is given to regulatory frameworks infrastructure readiness and economic viability. Additionally the study also explores the potential of green hydrogen in enhancing energy security within the context of the national energy transition.

South Africa has excellent conditions for renewable energy generation making it well placed to produce green hydrogen for both domestic use and export. In building a green hydrogen economy around export markets it will face competition from countries with equivalent or better resources and/or that are located closer to export markets (e.g. in North Africa and the Middle East) or have lower capital costs (developed markets like Australia and Canada). South Africa however has an extensive energy system with unserved electricity demand. The ability to trade electricity with the national grid (feeding into the grid during times of peak dedicated renewable energy supply and extracting from the grid during times of low dedicated renewable energy availability) could reduce the cost of producing green hydrogen by as much as 10–25 %. This paper explores the opportunity for South African green hydrogen producers presented by the electricity supply crisis that has been ongoing since 2007. It highlights the potential for a mutually reinforcing growth cycle between renewable energy and green hydrogen to be established which will contribute not only to the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions but to the local economy and broader society.

As part of global decarbonization efforts hydrogen has emerged as a key energy carrier that can achieve deep emission reductions in various sectors. This review critically assesses the role of hydrogen in the low-carbon energy transition and highlights the interlinked challenges within the Techno-Enviro-Socio-Political (TESP) framework. It examines key aspects of deployment including production storage safety environmental impacts and socio-political factors to present an integrated view of the opportunities and barriers to large-scale adoption. Despite growing global interest over 90 % of the current global hydrogen production originated from fossilbased processes resulting in around 920 Mt of CO2 emissions two-thirds of which were attributable to fossil fuels. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) shows that coal-based electrolysis resulted in the highest GHG emission (144 - 1033 g CO2-eq/MJ) and an energy consumption (1.55–10.33 MJ/MJ H2). Without a switch to low-carbon electricity electrolysis cannot deliver significant climate benefits. Conversely methanol steam reforming based on renewable feedstock offered the lowest GHG intensity (23.17 g CO2-eq/MJ) and energy demand (0.23 MJ/ MJ) while biogas reforming proved to be a practical short-term option with moderate emissions (51.5 g CO2-eq/ MJ) and favourable energy figures. Catalytic ammonia cracking which is suitable for long-distance transport represents a compromise between low energy consumption (2.93 MJ/MJ) and high water intensity (8.34 L/km). The thermophysical properties of hydrogen including its low molecular weight high diffusivity and easy flammability lead to significant safety risks during storage and distribution which are exacerbated by its sensitivity to ignition and jet pulse effects. The findings show that a viable hydrogen economy requires integrated strategies that combine decarbonised production scalable storage harmonised safety protocols and cross-sector stakeholder engagement for better public acceptance. This review sets out a multi-dimensional approach to guide technological innovation policy adaptation and infrastructure readiness to support a scalable and environmentally sustainable hydrogen economy.

This perspective sheds light on emerging research priorities crucial for advancing the low-carbon hydrogen sector considered critical for achieving net zero greenhouse gas emissions targets especially for hard-to-abate sectors. Our analysis follows a five-step process including drawing from news media academic discourse and expert consultations. We identify twenty-one major research challenges. Among the top priorities highlighted by experts are: (i) Evaluating the trade-offs of hydrogen-fueled power generation compared to hydrocarbon fuels and renewables with alternative storage solutions and the feasibility of co-firing hydrogen and ammonia with hydrocarbon fuels for backup or independent power generation; (ii) Exploring how global hydrogen trade could be shaped by market forces such as price volatility geopolitical dynamics and international collaborations; (iii) Examining the financial considerations for investors from developed nations pursuing hydrogen projects in resource-rich developing countries balancing costs investment risks and expected returns. We find statistically significant differences in opinions on hydrogen/ammonia co-firing for power generation between experts from China and those from the U.S. and Germany.

This paper compares national hydrogen (H2) infrastructure plans in Canada the United States (the USA) Singapore and Sri Lanka four countries with varying geographic and economic outlooks but shared targets for reaching net-zero emissions by 2050. It examines how each country approaches hydrogen production pipeline infrastructure policy incentives and international collaboration. Canada focuses on large-scale hydrogen production utilizing natural resources and retrofitted natural gas pipelines supplemented by carbon capture technology. The USA promotes regional hydrogen hubs with federal investment and intersectoral collaboration. Singapore suggests an innovation-based import-dominant strategy featuring hydrogen-compatible infrastructure in a land-constrained region. Sri Lanka maintains an import-facilitated pilot-scale model facilitated by donor funding and foreign collaboration. This study identifies common challenges such as hydrogen embrittlement leakages and infrastructure scalability as well as fundamental differences based on local conditions. Based on these findings strategic frameworks are proposed including scalability adaptability partnership policy architecture digitalization and equity. The findings highlight the importance of localized hydrogen solutions supported by strong international cooperation and international partnerships.