France
A Review of the MSCA ITN ECOSTORE—Novel Complex Metal Hydrides for Efficient and Compact Storage of Renewable Energy as Hydrogen and Electricity
Mar 2020
Publication
Hydrogen as an energy carrier is very versatile in energy storage applications. Developments in novel sustainable technologies towards a CO2-free society are needed and the exploration of all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) as well as solid-state hydrogen storage applications based on metal hydrides can provide solutions for such technologies. However there are still many technical challenges for both hydrogen storage material and ASSBs related to designing low-cost materials with low-environmental impact. The current materials considered for all-solid-state batteries should have high conductivities for Na+ Mg2+ and Ca2+ while Al3+-based compounds are often marginalised due to the lack of suitable electrode and electrolyte materials. In hydrogen storage materials the sluggish kinetic behaviour of solid-state hydride materials is one of the key constraints that limit their practical uses. Therefore it is necessary to overcome the kinetic issues of hydride materials before discussing and considering them on the system level. This review summarizes the achievements of the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) innovative training network (ITN) ECOSTORE the aim of which was the investigation of different aspects of (complex) metal hydride materials. Advances in battery and hydrogen storage materials for the efficient and compact storage of renewable energy production are discussed.
Methane Cracking for Hydrogen Production: A Review of Catalytic and Molten Media Pyrolysis
May 2022
Publication
Currently hydrogen is mainly generated by steam methane reforming with significant CO2 emissions thus exacerbating the greenhouse effect. This environmental concern promotes methane cracking which represents one of the most promising alternatives for hydrogen production with theoretical zero CO/CO2 emissions. Methane cracking has been intensively investigated using metallic and carbonaceous catalysts. Recently research has focused on methane pyrolysis in molten metals/salts to prevent both reactor coking and rapid catalyst deactivation frequently encountered in conventional pyrolysis. Another expected advantage is the heat transfer improvement due to the high heat capacity of molten media. Apart from the reaction itself that produces hydrogen and solid carbon the energy source used in this endothermic process can also contribute to reducing environmental impacts. While most researchers used nonrenewable sources based on fossil fuel combustion or electrical heating concentrated solar energy has not been thoroughly investigated to date for pyrolysis in molten media. However it could be a promising innovative pathway to further improve hydrogen production sustainability from methane cracking. After recalling the basics of conventional catalytic methane cracking and the developed solar cracking reactors this review delves into the most significant results of the state-of-the-art methane pyrolysis in melts (molten metals and salts) to show the advantages and the perspectives of this new path as well as the carbon products’ characteristics and the main factors governing methane conversion.
Dynamic Emulation of a PEM Electrolyzer by Time Constant Based Exponential Model
Feb 2019
Publication
The main objective of this paper is to develop a dynamic emulator of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer (EL) through an equivalent electrical model. Experimental investigations have highlighted the capacitive effect of EL when subjecting to dynamic current profiles which so far has not been reported in the literature. Thanks to a thorough experimental study the electrical domain of a PEM EL composed of 3 cells has been modeled under dynamic operating conditions. The dynamic emulator is based on an equivalent electrical scheme that takes into consideration the dynamic behavior of the EL in cases of sudden variation in the supply current. The model parameters were identified for a suitable current interval to consider them as constant and then tested with experimental data. The obtained results through the developed dynamic emulator have demonstrated its ability to accurately replicate the dynamic behavior of a PEM EL.
Overview of First Outcomes of PNR Project HYTUNNEL-CS
Sep 2021
Publication
Dmitry Makarov,
Donatella Cirrone,
Volodymyr V. Shentsov,
Sergii Kashkarov,
Vladimir V. Molkov,
Z. Xu,
Mike Kuznetsov,
Alexandros G. Venetsanos,
Stella G. Giannissi,
Ilias C. Tolias,
Knut Vaagsaether,
André Vagner Gaathaug,
Mark R. Pursell,
W. M. Rattigan,
Frank Markert,
Luisa Giuliani,
L.S. Sørensen,
A. Bernad,
Mercedes Sanz Millán,
U. Kummer,
C. Brauner,
Paola Russo,
J. van den Berg,
F. de Jong,
Tom Van Esbroeck,
M. Van De Veire,
D. Bouix,
Gilles Bernard-Michel,
Sergey Kudriakov,
Etienne Studer,
Domenico Ferrero,
Joachim Grüne and
G. Stern
The paper presents the first outcomes of the experimental numerical and theoretical studies performed in the funded by Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH2 JU) project HyTunnel-CS. The project aims to conduct pre-normative research (PNR) to close relevant knowledge gaps and technological bottlenecks in the provision of safety of hydrogen vehicles in underground transportation systems. Pre normative research performed in the project will ultimately result in three main outputs: harmonised recommendations on response to hydrogen accidents recommendations for inherently safer use of hydrogen vehicles in underground traffic systems and recommendations for RCS. The overall concept behind this project is to use inter-disciplinary and inter-sectoral prenormative research by bringing together theoretical modelling and experimental studies to maximise the impact. The originality of the overall project concept is the consideration of hydrogen vehicle and underground traffic structure as a single system with integrated safety approach. The project strives to develop and offer safety strategies reducing or completely excluding hydrogen-specific risks to drivers passengers public and first responders in case of hydrogen vehicle accidents within the currently available infrastructure.
Techno-Economic Assessment of Natural Gas Pyrolysis in Molten Salts
Jan 2022
Publication
Steam methane reforming with CO2 capture (blue hydrogen) and water electrolysis based on renewable electricity (green hydrogen) are commonly assumed to be the main supply options in a future hydrogen economy. However another promising method is emerging in the form of natural gas pyrolysis (turquoise hydrogen) with pure carbon as a valuable by-product. To better understand the potential of turquoise hydrogen this study presents a techno-economic assessment of a molten salt pyrolysis process. Results show that moderate reactor pressures around 12 bar are optimal and that reactor size must be limited by accepting reactor performance well below the thermodynamic equilibrium. Despite this challenge stemming from slow reaction rates the simplicity of the molten salt pyrolysis process delivers high efficiencies and promising economics. In the long-term carbon could be produced for 200–300 €/ton granting access to high-volume markets in the metallurgical and chemical process industries. Such a scenario makes turquoise hydrogen a promising alternative to blue hydrogen in regions with public resistance to CO2 transport and storage. In the medium-term expensive first-of-a-kind plants could produce carbon around 400 €/ton if hydrogen prices are set by conventional blue hydrogen production. Pure carbon at this cost level can access smaller high-value markets such as carbon anodes and graphite ensuring profitable operation even for first movers. In conclusion the economic potential of molten salt pyrolysis is high and further demonstration and scale-up efforts are strongly recommended.
Full-scale Tunnel Experiments for Fuel Cell Hydrogen Vehicles: Jat Fire and Explosions
Sep 2021
Publication
In the framework of the HYTUNNEL-CS European project sponsored by FCH-JU a set of preliminary tests were conducted in a real tunnel in France. These tests are devoted to safety of hydrogen-fueled vehicles having a compressed gas storage and Temperature Pressure Release Device (TPRD). The goal of the study is to develop recommendations for Regulations Codes and Standards (RCS) for inherently safer use of hydrogen vehicles in enclosed transportation systems. Two scenarios were investigated (a) jet fire evolution following the activation of TPRD due to conventional fuel car fire and (b) explosion of compressed hydrogen tank. The obtained experimental data are systematically compared to existing engineering correlations. The results will be used for benchmarking studies using CFD codes. The hydrogen pressure range in these preliminary tests has been lowered down to 20MPa in order to verify the capability of various large-scale measurement techniques before scaling up to 70 MPa the subject of the second experimental campaign.
THyGA - Review on Other Projects Related to Mitigation and Identification of Useable Sensors in Existing Appliances
Jun 2022
Publication
The main goal of THyGA’s WP5 is to investigate ways to adapt residential or commercial appliances that have safety or performance issues to different levels of H2 concentrations in natural gas. This first deliverable presents some possible mitigation measures based on a literature study and some calculations.<br/>Acting on gas quality to avoid that hydrogen addition enhance current gas properties variations was explored several times in the past. Designing new appliances that could operate with variable gas composition including hydrogen. Dealing with existing appliances in order to guaranty safety for users and appliances.
Preliminary Risk Assessment (PRA) for Tests Planned in a Pilot Salt Cavern Hydrogen Storage in the Frame of the French Project STOPIL-H2
Sep 2021
Publication
The STOPIL-H2 project supported by the French Geodenergies research consortium aims to design a demonstrator for underground hydrogen storage in cavern EZ53 of the Etrez gas storage (France) operated by Storengy. Two types of tests are planned in this cavern: a tightness test with nitrogen and hydrogen then a cycling test during which the upper part of the cavern (approximately 200 m3) will be filled with hydrogen during 6 to 9 months. In this paper the PRA for the cycling test is presented comprising the identification of the major hazards and the proposed prevention and protection measures. The implemented methodology involves the following steps: data mining from the description of the project; analysis of lessons learned from accidents that occurred in underground gas storage and subface facilities; identification of the potential hazards pertaining to the storage process; analysis of external potential aggressors. Resulting as one of the outcomes of the PRA major accidental scenarios are presented and classified according to concerned storage operation phases as well as determined preventive or protective barriers able to prevent their occurrence of mitigate their consequences.
AMHYCO Project - Towards Advanced Accident Guidelines for Hydrogen Safety in Nuclear Power Plants
Sep 2021
Publication
Severe accidents in nuclear power plants are potentially dangerous to both humans and the environment. To prevent and/or mitigate the consequences of these accidents it is paramount to have adequate accident management measures in place. During a severe accident combustible gases — especially hydrogen and carbon monoxide — can be released in significant amounts leading to a potential explosion risk in the nuclear containment building. These gases need to be managed to avoid threatening the containment integrity which can result in the releases of radioactive material into the environment. The main objective of the AMHYCO project is to propose innovative enhancements in the way combustible gases are managed in case of a severe accident in currently operating reactors. For this purpose the AMHYCO project pursues three specific activities including experimental investigations of relevant phenomena related to hydrogen / carbon monoxide combustion and mitigation with PARs (Passive Autocatalytic Recombiners) improvement of the predictive capabilities of analysis tools used for explosion hazard evaluation inside the reactor containment as well as enhancement of the Severe Accident Management Guidelines (SAMGs) with respect to combustible gases risk management based on theoretical and experimental results. Officially launched on 1 October 2020 AMHYCO is an EU-funded Horizon 2020 project that will last 4 years from 2020 to 2024. This international project consists of 12 organizations (six from European countries and one from Canada) and is led by the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM). AMHYCO will benefit from the worldwide experts in combustion science accident management and nuclear safety in its Advisory Board. The paper will give an overview of the work program and planned outcome of the project.
Hydrogen Storage: Recent Improvements and Industrial Perspectives
Sep 2021
Publication
Efficient storage of hydrogen is crucial for the success of hydrogen energy markets. Hydrogen can be stored either as a compressed gas a refrigerated liquefied gas a cryo-compressed gas or in hydrides. This paper gives an overview of compressed hydrogen storage technologies focusing on high pressure storage tanks in metal and in composite materials. It details specific issues and constraints related to the materials and structure behavior in hydrogen and conditions representative of hydrogen energy uses. This paper is an update of the 2019 version that was presented in Australia. It especially covers recent progress made regarding regulations codes and standards for the design manufacturing periodic inspection and plastic materials’ evaluation of compressed hydrogen storage.
Overview on Hydrogen Risk Research and Development Activities: Methodology and Open Issues
Jan 2015
Publication
During the course of a severe accident in a light water nuclear reactor large amounts of hydrogen can be generated and released into the containment during reactor core degradation. Additional burnable gases [hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO)] may be released into the containment in the corium/concrete interaction. This could subsequently raise a combustion hazard. As the Fukushima accidents revealed hydrogen combustion can cause high pressure spikes that could challenge the reactor buildings and lead to failure of the surrounding buildings. To prevent the gas explosion hazard most mitigation strategies adopted by European countries are based on the implementation of passive autocatalytic recombiners (PARs). Studies of representative accident sequences indicate that despite the installation of PARs it is difficult to prevent at all times and locations the formation of a combustible mixture that potentially leads to local flame acceleration. Complementary research and development (R&D) projects were recently launched to understand better the phenomena associated with the combustion hazard and to address the issues highlighted after the Fukushima Daiichi events such as explosion hazard in the venting system and the potential flammable mixture migration into spaces beyond the primary containment. The expected results will be used to improve the modeling tools and methodology for hydrogen risk assessment and severe accident management guidelines. The present paper aims to present the methodology adopted by Institut de Radioprotection et de Suˆ rete Nucleaire to assess hydrogen risk in nuclear power plants in particular French nuclear power plants the open issues and the ongoing R&D programs related to hydrogen distribution mitigation and combustion.
Life Cycle Assessments on Battery Electric Vehicles and Electrolytic Hydrogen: The Need for Calculation Rules and Better Databases on Electricity
May 2021
Publication
LCAs of electric cars and electrolytic hydrogen production are governed by the consumption of electricity. Therefore LCA benchmarking is prone to choices on electricity data. There are four issues: (1) leading Life Cycle Impact (LCI) databases suffer from inconvenient uncertainties and inaccuracies (2) electricity mix in countries is rapidly changing year after year (3) the electricity mix is strongly fluctuating on an hourly and daily basis which requires time-based allocation approaches and (4) how to deal with nuclear power in benchmarking. This analysis shows that: (a) the differences of the GHG emissions of the country production mix in leading databases are rather high (30%) (b) in LCA a distinction must be made between bundled and unbundled registered electricity certificates (RECs) and guarantees of origin (GOs); the residual mix should not be applied in LCA because of its huge inaccuracy (c) time-based allocation rules for renewables are required to cope with periods of overproduction (d) benchmarking of electricity is highly affected by the choice of midpoints and/or endpoint systems and (e) there is an urgent need for a new LCI database based on measured emission data continuously kept up-to-date transparent and open access.
Global Hydrogen Review 2021
Oct 2021
Publication
The Global Hydrogen Review is a new annual publication by the International Energy Agency to track progress in hydrogen production and demand as well as in other critical areas such as policy regulation investments innovation and infrastructure development.
The report is an output of the Clean Energy Ministerial Hydrogen Initiative (CEM H2I) and is intended to inform energy sector stakeholders on the status and future prospects of hydrogen while serving as an input to the discussions at the Hydrogen Energy Ministerial Meeting (HEM) organised by Japan. It examines what international progress on hydrogen is needed to help address climate change – and compares real-world developments with the stated ambitions of government and industry and with key actions under the Global Action Agenda launched at the HEM in 2019.
Focusing on hydrogen’s usefulness for meeting climate goals this Review aims to help decision makers fine-tune strategies to attract investment and facilitate deployment of hydrogen technologies while also creating demand for hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels.
Link to International Energy Agency website
The report is an output of the Clean Energy Ministerial Hydrogen Initiative (CEM H2I) and is intended to inform energy sector stakeholders on the status and future prospects of hydrogen while serving as an input to the discussions at the Hydrogen Energy Ministerial Meeting (HEM) organised by Japan. It examines what international progress on hydrogen is needed to help address climate change – and compares real-world developments with the stated ambitions of government and industry and with key actions under the Global Action Agenda launched at the HEM in 2019.
Focusing on hydrogen’s usefulness for meeting climate goals this Review aims to help decision makers fine-tune strategies to attract investment and facilitate deployment of hydrogen technologies while also creating demand for hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels.
Link to International Energy Agency website
On Board 70 MPA Hydrogen Composite Pressure Vessel Safety Factor
Sep 2021
Publication
The safety factor of a composite structure in relation to its mechanical rupture is an important criterion for the safety of a 70 MPa composite pressure vessel for hydrogen storage particularly for on-board applications (car bus truck train…). After an introduction of Type IV technology the contribution of carbon fibre composite material structure manufacturing process of pressure vessels and environmental effects on the safety factor are commented. Thanks to an experimental-based evaluation on composite material and H2 composite pressure vessel the safety margins are addressed.
THyGA - Tightness Testing of Gas Distribution Components in 40%H2+60%CH4
Aug 2022
Publication
The present work is concerned with the evaluation of the tightness of the components located on domestic and commercial gas lines from the gas meter to the end user appliance in presence of a mixture 40%H2+60%CH4 at 35 mbar. The components were taken from installations being used currently in Germany Denmark Belgium and France. The current standard methods to evaluate natural gas distribution tightness propose testing duration of several minutes. In this work the components tightness was first evaluated using such standard methods before carrying out tests on longer period of time and evaluate the potential influence of time and the results were compared to admissible leakage rates for natural gas in distribution network and in appliances.
Impact of Hydrogen Liquefaction on Hydrogen Fuel Quality for Transport Applications (ISO-14687:2019)
Aug 2022
Publication
Decarbonisation of the energy sector is becoming increasingly more important to the reduction in climate change. Renewable energy is an effective means of reducing CO2 emissions but the fluctuation in demand and production of energy is a limiting factor. Liquid hydrogen allows for long-term storage of energy. Hydrogen quality is important for the safety and efficiency of the end user. Furthermore the quality of the hydrogen gas after liquefaction has not yet been reported. The purity of hydrogen after liquefaction was assessed against the specification of Hydrogen grade D in the ISO-14687:2019 by analysing samples taken at different locations throughout production. Sampling was carried out directly in gas cylinders and purity was assessed using multiple analytical methods. The results indicate that the hydrogen gas produced from liquefaction is of a higher purity than the starting gas with all impurities below the threshold values set in ISO-14687:2019. The amount fraction of water measured in the hydrogen sample increased with repeated sampling from the liquid hydrogen tank suggesting that the sampling system used was affected by low temperatures (−253 ◦C). These data demonstrate for the first time the impact of liquefaction on hydrogen purity assessed against ISO-14687:2019 showing that liquified hydrogen is a viable option for long-term energy storage whilst also improving quality.
Reducing the Cost of Low-carbon Hydrogen Production via Emerging Chemical Looping Process
Jan 2023
Publication
A thorough techno-economic analysis where inherent carbon capture is examined against state-of-the-art blue hydrogen production configurations for large (100000 Nm3 /h) and very large (333000 Nm3 /h) capacities. Advanced solvent-based technologies based on post-combustion capture and auto-thermal reformer combined with a gas heated reformer are simulated with process flowsheet software and compared with the emerging chemical looping process. A network of dynamically operated packed bed reactors has been designed and modelled using an in-house code and key parameters generating uncertainties in the results have been examined in a sensitivity analysis. The chemical looping reforming process presents a higher net reforming efficiency than the benchmark cases (8.2 % higher at large scale and 1.5 % higher at very large scale) ranged 75.4–75.7 % while the specific energy for CO2 avoidance is negative in the range of − 0.78 to − 0.85 MJ/kgCO2. In the carbon capture cases the chemical looping reforming in packed beds technology generated a levelised cost of hydrogen of 168.9 £/kNm3 H2 for the large scale and 159.1 £/kNm3 H2 for the very large scale with the values for the benchmark cases being higher at 196.4 and 166.6 £/kNm3 H2 respectively while the levelised cost of hydrogen values are 1 % higher in the benchmark cases where carbon emission price is accounted for. The carbon capture ratio is 99.9 % for the chemical looping reforming cases compared to 90–91 % for the benchmark ones thus providing a significant foreground for the scale-up and implementation of chemical looping reforming technologies for hydrogen production.
Corrosion of Structural Components of Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolyzer Anodes: A Review
Dec 2022
Publication
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis is one of the low temperature processes for producing green hydrogen when coupled with renewable energy sources. Although this technology has already reached a certain level of maturity and is being implemented at industrial scale its high capital expenditures deriving from the utilization of expensive corrosion-resistant materials limit its economic competitiveness compared to the widespread fossil fuel-based hydrogen production such as steam reforming. In particular the structural elements like bipolar plates (BPP) and porous transports layers (PTL) are essentially made of titanium protected by precious metal layers in order to withstand the harsh oxidizing conditions in the anode compartment. This review provides an analysis of literature on structural element degradation on the oxygen side of PEM water electrolyzers from the early investigations to the recent developments involving novel anti-corrosion coatings that protect more cost-effective BPP and PTL materials like stainless steels.
A Simple and Low-cost Integrative Sensor System for Methane and Hydrogen Measurement
Sep 2020
Publication
Energy production by methanization or gasification of biomass is dependant on the chemical composition of the gas generated. The resistive sensors based on semiconductor metal oxides like the MQ series sensors are inexpensive and frequently used in gas detection. These sensors initially dedicated to detecting gas leaks in safety systems have relatively small measurement ranges (i.e. limited to concentrations below 10000 ppm). It is therefore necessary to find solutions to adapt these categories of sensors for gas measurements in the energy sector where the gas concentration is much more significant. In this article we propose a protocol using an adaptable capsule for MQ-4 and MQ-8 sensors to measure high concentrations of CH4 and H2 respectively. The technique consists of diluting the gas to be studied in a known volume of air. Three methods are proposed and compared regarding the linearity and the repeatability of the measurements. The first method was done in an airtight enclosed chamber the second method consists of directly injecting the gas on the sensor placed in an open environment and the final method was accomplished by direct injection of the gas on the sensor placed in a partially closed capsule. Comparisons show that the first technique provides the best repeatability with a maximum standard deviation of 13.88% for CH4 measurement and 5.1% for H2. However its linearity is weak (i.e. R2 ¼ 0.8637 for CH4 and R2 ¼ 0.5756 for H2). The second technique has better linearity but bad repeatability. The third technique presents the best results with R2 values of 0.9973 for the CH4 measurement and 0.9472 for H2. The use of the partially closed capsule resulted in an acceptable linear response of the sensors by up to 20% concentration of CH4 and until 13.33% concentration of H2 in the studied gas. The use of this simple and low-cost technique facilitates the characterization of combustible gases in isolated areas. It allows local operators of biomass valorization systems to control and improve their installations while avoiding the high costs of conventional measurement devices. This study hence contributes to the development of rural electrification projects in remote areas.
Regional Uptake of Direct Reduction Iron Production Using Hydrogen Under Climate Policy
Nov 2022
Publication
The need to reduce CO2 emissions to zero by 2050 has meant an increasing focus on high emitting industrial sectors such as steel. However significant uncertainties remain as to the rate of technology diffusion across steel production pathways in different regions and how this might impact on climate ambition. Informed by empirical analysis of historical transitions this paper presents modelling on the regional deployment of Direction Reduction Iron using hydrogen (DRI-H2). We find that DRI-H2 can play a leading role in the decarbonisation of the sector leading to near-zero emissions by 2070. Regional spillovers from early to late adopting regions can speed up the rate of deployment of DRI-H2 leading to lower cumulative emissions and system costs. Without such effects cumulative emissions are 13% higher than if spillovers are assumed and approximately 15% and 20% higher in China and India respectively. Given the estimates of DRI-H2 cost-effectiveness relative to other primary production technologies we also find that costs increase in the absence of regional spillovers. However other factors can also have impacts on deployment emission reductions and costs including the composition of the early adopter group material efficiency improvements and scrap recycling rates. For the sector to achieve decarbonisation key regions will need to continue to invest in low carbon steel projects recognising their broader global benefit and look to develop and strengthen policy coordination on technologies such as DRI-H2.
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