United Kingdom
Characterization of the Hazards from Jet Releases of Hydrogen
Sep 2005
Publication
Hydrogen is a convenient energy storage medium; it can be produced from fossil fuels and biomass via chemical conversion processes or from intermittent renewable sources like wind and solar via electrolysis. It is the fuel of choice for the clean fuel-cell vehicles of the future. If the general public are to use hydrogen as a vehicle fuel customers must be able to handle hydrogen with the same degree of confidence and with comparable risk as conventional liquid and gaseous fuels. For the safe design of retail facilities through the development of appropriate codes and standards it is essential to understand all the hazards that could arise following an accidental release of hydrogen. If it is to be stored and used as a high-pressure gas the hazards associated with jet releases from accidental leaks must be considered. This paper describes work by Shell and the Health and Safety Laboratory to characterise the hazards from jet releases of hydrogen. Jet release experiments have been carried out using small leaks (circular holes ranging from 1 mm to 12 mm diameter) at system pressures up to 150 barg. Concentration measurements were made in the unignited free jets to determine the extent of the flammable cloud generated. Ignited jets were observed both in the visible and infrared to determine the flame size and shape. The experimental results for the extent of the flammable cloud and jet flame length were found to be in good agreement with model predictions.
Narratives for Natural Gas in a Decarbonising European Energy Market
Feb 2019
Publication
The advocacy narrative of the European Union gas community which focused on coal to gas switching and backing up renewables has failed to convince governments NGOs and media commentators that it can achieve post-2030 decarbonisation targets. The gas community therefore needs to develop decarbonisation narratives showing how it will develop commercial scale projects for biogas biomethane and hydrogen from power to gas (electrolysis) and reformed methane. COP21 carbon targets require an accelerating decline in EU methane demand starting around 2030. In 2050 the maximum projected availability of renewable gas is equivalent to 25 per cent of current EU gas demand. Maintaining current demand levels will therefore require very substantial volumes of hydrogen from reformed methane with carbon capture and storage (CCS). Pipeline gas and LNG suppliers will need to progressively decarbonise their product if it is to remain saleable in Europe. However networks face an existential threat unless they can maintain existing throughput while simultaneously adapting to a decarbonised product. Significant threats and challenges to these narratives include: short term geopolitical concerns stemming from dependence on Russian gas ‘hydrocarbon rejectionism’ and an inability of companies to invest for a post-2030 decarbonised future. Governments will need to shift current policy and regulatory frameworks from competition to decarbonisation which will require a ‘regulatory revolution’. In addition to government funding and regulatory support there will need to be very substantial corporate investment in projects for which there is currently no business case. Failure of the gas community to create and deliver credible decarbonisation narratives is likely to result in the adoption of electrification rather than gas decarbonisation options.
Consumer Attitudes to Fuel Cell Vehicles Post Trial in the United Kingdom
Mar 2016
Publication
Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have clear societal and environmental benefits and can help mitigate the issues of climate change urban air pollution and oil dependence. In order for FCVs to have the biggest impact on these issues they need to be employed in large numbers. First though they need to be adopted by consumers. Their acceptance depends on positive consumer attitudes towards the vehicles. Currently there is a limited understanding within the literature on how consumers perceive FCVs and what the likelihood of adoption by consumers would be despite significant governmental and organisational investments into the technology. Therefore this study assesses consumer attitudes towards FCVs in the United Kingdom. 81 persons drove a Hyundai FCV at the Low Carbon Vehicle Event in September 2015 of which 30 took part in this study. The results show that at present FCVs are perceived mostly as being similar to incumbent internal combustion engine vehicles. This is an admirable technical achievement however in order for consumers to adopt FCVs they will need to be perceived as having distinctive benefits. Two significant barriers to the adoption of FCVs are observed in this sample: high costs and lack of refuelling infrastructure. This paper goes on to make suggestions on how and which beneficial attributes of the vehicles can be promoted to consumers and also makes suggestions on how the barriers can be overcame so that FCVs will be adopted by consumers.
Strategies for the Sampling of Hydrogen at Refuelling Stations for Purity Assessment
Aug 2021
Publication
Hydrogen delivered at hydrogen refuelling station must be compliant with requirements stated in different standards which require specialized sampling device and personnel to operate it. Currently different strategies are implemented in different parts of the world and these strategies have already been used to perform 100s of hydrogen fuel sampling in USA EU and Japan. However these strategies have never been compared on a large systematic study. The purpose of this paper is to describe and compare the different strategies for sampling hydrogen at the nozzle and summarize the key aspects of all the existing hydrogen fuel sampling including discussion on material compatibility with the impurities that must be assessed. This review highlights the fact it is currently difficult to evaluate the impact or the difference these strategies would have on the hydrogen fuel quality assessment. Therefore comparative sampling studies are required to evaluate the equivalence between the different sampling strategies. This is the first step to support the standardization of hydrogen fuel sampling and to identify future research and development area for hydrogen fuel sampling.
Refuelling Infrastructure Requirements for Renewable Hydrogen Road Fuel through the Energy Transition
Nov 2022
Publication
Current commercially available options for decarbonisation of road transport are battery electric vehicles or hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles. BEVs are increasingly deployed while hydrogen is in its infancy. We examine the infrastructure necessary to support hydrogen fuelling to various degrees of market penetration. Scotland makes a good exemplar of transport transition with a world leading Net-Zero ambition and proven pathways for generating ample renewable energy. We identified essential elements of the new transport systems and the associated capital expenditure. We developed nine scenarios based on the pace of change and the ultimate market share of hydrogen and constructed a model to analyse their infrastructure requirements. This is a multi-period model incorporating Monte Carlo and Markov Chain elements. A “no-regrets” initial action is rapid deployment of enough hydrogen infrastructure to facilitate the early years of a scenario where diesel fuel becomes replaced with hydrogen. Even in a lower demand scenario of only large and heavy goods vehicles using hydrogen the same infrastructure would be required within a further two years. Subsequent investment in infrastructure could be considered in the light of this initial development.
Numerical Characterization of Under-expanded Cryogenic Hydrogen Gas Jets
Sep 2022
Publication
High-resolution direct numerical simulations are conducted for under-expanded cryogenic hydrogen gas jets to characterize the nearfield flow physics. The basic flow features and jet dynamics are analyzed in detail revealing the existence of four stages during early jet development namely (a) initial penetration (b) establishment of near-nozzle expansion (c) formation of downstream compression and (d) wave propagation. Complex acoustic waves are formed around the under-expanded jets. The jet expansion can also lead to conditions for local liquefaction from the pressurized cryogenic hydrogen gas release. A series of simulations are conducted with systematically varied nozzle pressure ratios and systematically changed exit diameters. The acoustic waves around the jets are found to waken with the decrease in the nozzle pressure ratio. The increase in the nozzle pressure ratio is found to accelerate hydrogen dispersion and widen the regions with hydrogen liquefaction potential. The increase in the nozzle exit diameter also widens the region with hydrogen liquefaction potential but slows down the evolution of the flow structures.
Gauging Public Perceptions of Blue and Green Hydrogen Futures: Is the Twin-track Approach Compatible with Hydrogen Acceptance?
Jun 2023
Publication
National hydrogen strategies are emerging as a critical pillar of climate change policy. For homes connected to the gas grid hydrogen may offer an alternative decarbonisation pathway to electrification. Hydrogen production pathways in countries such as the UK will involve both the gas network and the electricity grid with related policy choices and investment decisions impacting the potential configuration of consumer acceptance for hydrogen homes. Despite the risk of public resistance be it on environmental economic or social grounds few studies have explored the emerging contours of domestic hydrogen acceptance. To date there is scarce evidence on public perceptions of national hydrogen policy and the extent to which attitudes may be rooted in prior knowledge and awareness or open to change following information provision and engagement. In response this study evaluates consumer preferences for a low-carbon energy future wherein parts of the UK housing stock may adopt low-carbon hydrogen boilers and hobs. Drawing on data from online focus groups we examine consumer perceptions of the government's twin-track approach which envisions important roles for both ‘blue’ and ‘green’ hydrogen to meet net zero ambitions. Through a mixed-methods multigroup analysis the underlying motivation is to explore whether the twin-track approach appears compatible with hydrogen acceptance. Moving forward hydrogen policy should ensure greater transparency concerning the benefits costs and risks of the transition with clearer communication about the justification for supporting respective hydrogen production pathways.
Performance of Three Typical Domestic Gas Stoves Operated with Methane-hydrogen Mixture
Dec 2022
Publication
Hydrogen blending into natural gas has attracted significant attention in domestic applications. The paper studied the effects of natural gas mixed with hydrogen at 0% (vol) 5% 10% 15% 20% and 25% on the performance of typical round-port gas stove (TRPGS) swirling strip-port gas stove (SSPGS) and radiant porous media gas stove (RPMGS). The experimental results show that flame length shortens with the increase of hydrogen proportion and the combustion remains stable when the hydrogen proportion is equal to or less than 25%. With increasing hydrogen proportion the measured heat inputs of the three types of domestic gas stoves decrease gradually and the average thermal efficiency of TRPGS and SSPGS increase by 0.82% and 1.18% respectively. In addition the average efficiency of the RPMGS first increases by 1.35% under a hydrogen proportion of 15% and then decreases by 1.36% under a hydrogen proportion of 25%. In terms of flue gas emission CO emission reduces significantly with increasing hydrogen proportion while NOX emissions remain almost unchanged.
Hydrogen Strategy Update to the Market: December 2022
Dec 2022
Publication
The Government is committed to developing the UK’s low carbon hydrogen economy: hydrogen is considered critical to delivering energy security and our decarbonisation targets and presents a significant growth opportunity. It can play a pivotal role in our transition to a future based on renewable and nuclear energy while ensuring that natural gas used during this transition is from reliable sources including our own North Sea production and can provide clean energy for use in industry power transport and potentially home heating. In the UK Hydrogen Strategy we included the commitment to regularly summarise our policy development to keep industry apprised. Since publication of the Hydrogen Strategy we have doubled our low carbon hydrogen production capacity ambition to up to 10GW by 2030 (with at least half from electrolytic hydrogen) in the British Energy Security Strategy provided greater clarity to investors through the Hydrogen Investment Package and made substantial policy and funding strides across the hydrogen value chain. We summarised these ambitions commitments and actions in the first Hydrogen Strategy update to the market in July 2022. This was published alongside other key elements of our policy support which also included the launch of the first Electrolytic Hydrogen Allocation Round – offering joint Net Zero Hydrogen Fund (NZHF) and Hydrogen Production Business Model (HPBM) support – and our Hydrogen Sector Development Action Plan and the appointment of a UK Hydrogen Champion. Hydrogen is closely integrated into Government’s wider policy development on energy security and the energy transition both domestically and internationally with hydrogen policy previously announced through the Net Zero Strategy and the Breakthrough Agenda at COP26. This December 2022 Hydrogen Strategy update to the market summarises the extensive activity across Government since July to develop new hydrogen policy at pace and to design and deliver funding support. This includes announcements on shortlisted hydrogen projects in the Cluster Sequencing Process the launch of a consultation on hydrogen transport and storage (T&S) infrastructure the publication of the HPBM Heads of Terms and an update on the ongoing first Electrolytic Hydrogen Allocation Round. The hydrogen policy development presented here underlines the Government’s approach to promote every aspect of the UK hydrogen economy in collaboration with industry investors and international partners to create a strong globally competitive UK hydrogen sector.
Investigations on Pressure Dependence of Coriolis Mass Flow Meters Used at Hydrogen Refueling Stations
Sep 2020
Publication
In the framework of the ongoing EMPIR JRP 16ENG01 ‘‘Metrology for Hydrogen Vehicles’’ a main task is to investigate the influence of pressure on the measurement accuracy of Coriolis Mass Flow Meters (CFM) used at Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRS). At a HRS hydrogen is transferred at very high and changing pressures with simultaneously varying flow rates and temperatures. It is clearly very difficult for CFMs to achieve the current legal requirements with respect to mass flow measurement accuracy at these measurement conditions. As a result of the very dynamic filling process it was observed that the accuracy of mass flow measurement at different pressure ranges is not sufficient. At higher pressures it was found that particularly short refueling times cause significant measurement deviations. On this background it may be concluded that pressure has a great impact on the accuracy of mass flow measurement. To gain a deeper understanding of this matter RISE has built a unique high-pressure test facility. With the aid of this newly developed test rig it is possible to calibrate CFMs over a wide pressure and flow range with water or base oils as test medium. The test rig allows calibration measurements under the conditions prevailing at a 70 MPa HRS regarding mass flows (up to 3.6 kg min−1) and pressures (up to 87.5 MPa).
Milford Haven: Energy Kingdom - System Architecture Report: A Prospering from the Energy Revolution Project
Nov 2021
Publication
Milford Haven: Energy Kingdom is a two-year project exploring what a decarbonised smart local energy system could look like for Milford Haven Pembroke and Pembroke Dock.
The project explores the potential of hydrogen as part of a multi-vector approach to decarbonisation. Central to the project and to achieving Net Zero is a commitment to engage with the community and local industry providing insight and opportunities for growth.
The ambition is to gather detailed insight into the whole energy system around Milford Haven to identify and design a future smart local energy system based on a truly multi-vector approach and comprehensive energy systems architecture.
The transition to Net Zero requires action across the economy. As the UK’s largest energy port Milford Haven is an industrial cluster that can handle 30% of total UK gas demand is home to Europe’s largest gas power station powering 3.5 million homes and businesses has ambitions to build 90MW of floating offshore wind supports 5000 jobs and injects £324m to the Pembrokeshire economy.
This work describes the outcomes of the effort to define designs of future energy system architectures combining; technology the interconnectivity between them and data; with markets trading platforms and policies; with business models and defined organisational governance. The aim of these designs is to provide:
The project explores the potential of hydrogen as part of a multi-vector approach to decarbonisation. Central to the project and to achieving Net Zero is a commitment to engage with the community and local industry providing insight and opportunities for growth.
The ambition is to gather detailed insight into the whole energy system around Milford Haven to identify and design a future smart local energy system based on a truly multi-vector approach and comprehensive energy systems architecture.
The transition to Net Zero requires action across the economy. As the UK’s largest energy port Milford Haven is an industrial cluster that can handle 30% of total UK gas demand is home to Europe’s largest gas power station powering 3.5 million homes and businesses has ambitions to build 90MW of floating offshore wind supports 5000 jobs and injects £324m to the Pembrokeshire economy.
This work describes the outcomes of the effort to define designs of future energy system architectures combining; technology the interconnectivity between them and data; with markets trading platforms and policies; with business models and defined organisational governance. The aim of these designs is to provide:
- The basis for a roadmap for the next phases of development and implementation
- Confidence to innovators and investors in the future longevity of investments in hydrogen and
- A common basis of understanding for all stakeholders wishing to contribute to the Milford Haven: Energy Kingdom.
PEMFC Poly-Generation Systems: Developments, Merits, and Challenges
Oct 2021
Publication
Significant research efforts are directed towards finding new ways to reduce the cost increase efficiency and decrease the environmental impact of power-generation systems. The poly-generation concept is a promising strategy that enables the development of a sustainable power system. Over the past few years the Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell-based Poly-Generation Systems (PEMFC-PGSs) have received accelerated developments due to the low-temperature operation high efficiency and low environmental impact. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the main PEMFC-PGSs including Combined Heat and Power (CHP) co-generation systems Combined Cooling and Power (CCP) co-generation systems Combined Cooling Heat and Power (CCHP) tri-generation systems and Combined Water and Power (CWP) co-generation systems. First the main technologies used in PEMFC-PGSs such as those related to hydrogen production energy storage and Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) etc. are detailed. Then the research progresses on the economic energy and environmental performance of the different PEMFC-PGSs are presented. Also the recent commercialization activities on these systems are highlighted focusing on the leading countries in this field. Furthermore the remaining economic and technical obstacles of these systems along with the future research directions to mitigate them are discussed. The review reveals the potential of the PEMFC-PGS in securing a sustainable future of the power systems. However many economic and technical issues particularly those related to high cost and degradation rate still need to be addressed before unlocking the full benefits of such systems.
Hydrogen Supply Chain and Refuelling Network Design: Assessment of Alternative Scenarios for the Long-haul Road Freight in the UK
Mar 2023
Publication
Shifting from fossil fuels to clean alternative fuel options such as hydrogen is an essential step in decarbonising the road freight transport sector and facilitating an efficient transition towards zero-emissions goods distribution of the future. Designing an economically viable and competitive Hydrogen Supply Chain (HSC) to support and accelerate the widespread adoption of hydrogen powered Heavy Goods Vehicles (H2-HGVs) is however significantly hindered by the lack of the infrastructure required for producing storing transporting and distributing the required hydrogen. This paper focuses on a bespoke design of a hydrogen supply chain and distribution network for the long-haul road freight transportation in the UK and develops an improved end-to-end and spatially-explicit optimisation tool to perform scenario analysis and provide important first-hand managerial and policy making insights. The proposed methodology improves over existing grid-based methodologies by incorporating spatially-explicit locations of Hydrogen Refuelling Stations (HRSs) and allowing further flexibility and accuracy. Another distinctive feature of the method and the analyses carried out in the paper pertains to the inclusion of bulk geographically agnostic as well as geological underground hydrogen storage options and reporting on significant cost saving opportunities. Finally the curve for H2-HGVs penetration levels safety stock period decisions and the transport mode capacity against hydrogen levelized cost at pump have been generated as important policy making tools to provide decision support and insights into cost resilience and reliability of the HSC.
Policy and Pricing Barriers to Steel Industry Decarbonisation: A UK Case Study
Aug 2022
Publication
Global climate targets have highlighted the need for a whole-systems approach to decarbonisation one that includes targeted national policy and industry specific change. Situated within this context this research examines policy and pricing barriers to decarbonisation of the UK steel industry. Here the techno-economic modelling of UK green steelmaking provides a technical contribution to analysis of pricing barriers and policy solutions to these barriers in the UK specifically but also to the broader industrial decarbonisation literature. Estimated costs and associated emissions projections reveal relevant opportunities for UK steel in contributing to national climate and emissions targets. Modelling demonstrates that green steelmaking options have been put at price disadvantages compared to emissions-intensive incumbents and that fossil-free hydrogen-based steel-making has lower emissions and lower levelised costs than carbon capture and storage options including top gas recycling blast furnace (TGR-BF) with CCS and HIsarna smelter with CCS. Two primary policy recommendations are made: the removal of carbon pricing discrepancies and reductions in industrial electricity prices that would level the playing field for green steel producers in the UK. The research also provides relevant policy considerations for the international community in other industrial decarbonisation efforts and the policies that must accompany these decarbonisation choices.
Impact of Local Emergency Demand Response Programs on the Operation of Electricity and Gas Systems
Mar 2022
Publication
With increasing attention to climate change the penetration level of renewable energy sources (RES) in the electricity network is increasing. Due to the intermittency of RES gas‐fired power plants could play a significant role in backing up the RES in order to maintain the supply– demand balance. As a result the interaction between gas and power networks are significantly in‐ creasing. On the other hand due to the increase in peak demand (e.g. electrification of heat) net‐ work operators are willing to execute demand response programs (DRPs) to improve congestion management and reduce costs. In this context modeling and optimal implementation of DRPs in proportion to the demand is one of the main issues for gas and power network operators. In this paper an emergency demand response program (EDRP) is implemented locally to reduce the con‐ gestion of transmission lines and gas pipelines more efficiently. Additionally the effects of optimal implementation of local emergency demand response program (LEDRP) in gas and power networks using linear and non‐linear economic models (power exponential and logarithmic) for EDRP in terms of cost and line congestion and risk of unserved demand are investigated. The most reliable demand response model is the approach that has the least difference between the estimated demand and the actual demand. Furthermore the role of the LEDRP in the case of hydrogen injection instead of natural gas in the gas infrastructure is investigated. The optimal incentives for each bus or node are determined based on the power transfer distribution factor gas transfer distribution factor available electricity or gas transmission capability and combination of unit commitment with the LEDRP in the integrated operation of these networks. According to the results implementing the LEDRP in gas and power networks reduces the total operation cost up to 11% and could facilitate hydrogen injection to the network. The proposed hybrid model is implemented on a 24‐bus IEEE electricity network and a 15‐bus gas network to quantify the role and value of different LEDRP models.
Progress in Electrical Energy Storage System: A Critical Review
Jan 2009
Publication
Electrical energy storage technologies for stationary applications are reviewed. Particular attention is paid to pumped hydroelectric storage compressed air energy storage battery flow battery fuel cell solar fuel superconducting magnetic energy storage flywheel capacitor/supercapacitor and thermal energy storage. Comparison is made among these technologies in terms of technical characteristics applications and deployment status.
Batteries, Fuel Cells, or Engines? A Probabilistic Economic and Environmental Assessment of Electricity and Electrofuels for Heavy Goods Vehicles
Oct 2022
Publication
Uncertainty surrounding the total cost of ownership system costs and life cycle environmental impacts means that stakeholders may lack the required information to evaluate the risks of transitioning to low-carbon fuels and powertrains. This paper assesses the life cycle costs and well-to-wheel environmental impacts of using electricity and electrofuels in Heavy Good Vehicles (HGVs) whilst considering input parameter uncertainty. The complex relationship between electricity cost electrolyser capacity factor CO2 capture cost and electricity emissions intensity is assessed within a Monte Carlo based framework to identify scenarios where use of electricity or electrofuels in heavy goods vehicles makes economic and environmental sense. For vehicles with a range of less than 450 km battery electric vehicles achieve the lowest total cost of ownership for an electricity cost less than 100 €/MWh. For vehicles that require a range of up to 900 km hydrogen fuel cell vehicles represent the lowest long-term cost of abatement. Power-to-methane and power-to-liquid scenarios become economically competitive when low-cost electricity is available at high-capacity factors and CO2 capture costs for fuel synthesis are below 100 €/tCO2; these fuels may be more applicable to decarbonise shipping and aviation. Battery electric HGVs reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50% compared to the diesel baseline with electricity emissions of 350 gCO2e/kWh. Electricity emissions less than 35 gCO2e/kWh are required for the power-to-methane and power-to-liquid scenarios to meet EU emissions savings criteria. High vehicle capital costs and a lack of widespread refuelling infrastructure may hinder initial uptake of low-carbon fuels and powertrains for HGVs.
Delivering a Reliable Decarbonised Power System
Mar 2023
Publication
This report illustrates what a reliable resilient decarbonised electricity supply system could look like in 2035 and the steps required to achieve it. It provides new insights and new advice on how such a system can be achieved by 2035 using real weather data and hourly analysis of Great Britain’s power system (Northern Ireland is part of the all-Ireland system). It also looks at the implications for hydrogen.
Spontaneous Ignition of Cryo-Compressed Hydrogen in a T-Shaped Channel System
Aug 2022
Publication
Sudden releases of pressurised hydrogen may spontaneously ignite by the so-called “diffusion ignition” mechanism. Several experimental and numerical studies have been performed on spontaneous ignition for compressed hydrogen at ambient temperature. However there is no knowledge of the phenomenon for compressed hydrogen at cryogenic temperatures. The study aims to close this knowledge gap by performing numerical experiments using a computational fluid dynamics model validated previously against experiments at atmospheric temperatures to assess the effect of temperature decrease from ambient 300 K to cryogenic 80 K. The ignition dynamics is analysed for a T-shaped channel system. The cryo-compressed hydrogen is initially separated from the air in the T-shaped channel system by a burst disk (diaphragm). The inertia of the burst disk is accounted for in the simulations. The numerical experiments were carried out to determine the hydrogen storage pressure limit leading to spontaneous ignition in the configuration under investigation. It is found that the pressure limit for spontaneous ignition of the cryo-compressed hydrogen at temperature 80 K is 9.4 MPa. This is more than 3 times larger than pressure limit for spontaneous ignition of 2.9 MPa in the same setup at ambient temperature of 300 K.
Hydrogenerally - Episode 6: Waste to Hydrogen
Nov 2022
Publication
In this sixth episode Steffan Eldred Hydrogen Innovation Network Knowledge Transfer Manager and Debra Jones Chemistry Knowledge Transfer Manager from Innovate UK KTN discuss why converting waste to hydrogen is so important and explore the hydrogen transition opportunities and challenges in this sector alongside their special guest Rob Dent Senior Research Engineer - Energy Linde and Application Sales Engineer at BOC UK & Ireland.
The podcast can be found on their website.
The podcast can be found on their website.
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