United Kingdom
Hubs and Clusters Approach to Unlock the Development of Carbon Capture and Storage - Case Study in Spain
Jul 2021
Publication
Xiaolong Sun,
Juan Alcalde,
Mahdi Bakhtbidar,
Javier Elío,
Víctor Vilarrasa,
Jacobo Canal,
Julio Ballesteros,
Niklas Heinemann,
Stuart Haszeldine,
Andrew Cavanagh,
David Vega-Maza,
Fernando Rubiera,
Roberto Martínez-Orio,
Gareth Johnson,
Ramon Carbonell,
Ignacio Marzan,
Anna Travé and
Enrique Gomez-Rivas
Many countries have assigned an indispensable role for carbon capture and storage (CCS) in their national climate change mitigation pathways. However CCS deployment has stalled in most countries with only limited commercial projects realised mainly in hydrocarbon-rich countries for enhanced oil recovery. If the Paris Agreement is to be met then this progress must be replicated widely including hydrocarbon-limited countries. In this study we present a novel source-to-sink assessment methodology based on a hubs and clusters approach to identify favourable regions for CCS deployment and attract renewed public and political interest in viable deployment pathways. Here we apply this methodology to Spain where fifteen emission hubs from both the power and the hard-to-abate industrial sectors are identified as potential CO2 sources. A priority storage structure and two reserves for each hub are selected based on screening and ranking processes using a multi-criteria decision-making method. The priority source-to-sink clusters are identified indicating four potential development regions with the North-Western and North-Eastern Spain recognised as priority regions due to resilience provided by different types of CO2 sources and geological structures. Up to 68.7 Mt CO2 per year comprising around 21% of Spanish emissions can be connected to clusters linked to feasible storage. CCS especially in the hard-to-abate sector and in combination with other low-carbon energies (e.g. blue hydrogen and bioenergy) remains a significant and unavoidable contributor to the Paris Agreement’s mid-century net-zero target. This study shows that the hubs and clusters approach can facilitate CCS deployment in Spain and other hydrocarbon-limited countries.
Future Pathways for Energy Networks: A Review of International Experiences in High Income Countries
Oct 2022
Publication
Energy networks are the systems of pipes and wires by which different energy vectors are transported from where they are produced to where they are needed. As such these networks are central to facilitating countries’ moves away from a reliance on fossil fuels to a system based around the efficient use of renewable and other low carbon forms of energy. In this review we highlight the challenges facing energy networks from this transition in a sample of key high income countries. We identify the technical and other innovations being implemented to meet these challenges and describe some of the new policy and regulatory developments that are incentivising the required changes. We then review evidence from the literature about the benefits of moving to a more integrated approach based on the concept of a Multi-Vector Energy Network (MVEN). Under this approach the different networks are planned and operated together to achieve greater functionality and performance than simply the sum of the individual networks. We find that most studies identify a range of benefits from an MVEN approach but that these findings are based on model simulations. Further work is therefore needed to verify whether the benefits can be realised in practice and to identify how any risks can be mitigated.
An Energy Systems Model of a Large Commercial Liquid Hydrogen Aircraft in a Low-carbon Future
Apr 2023
Publication
Liquid hydrogen (LH2) aircraft have the potential to achieve carbon neutrality. However if the hydrogen is produced using electricity grids that utilise fossil fuel they have a non-zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emission associated with their well-to-wing pathway. To assess the potential of LH2 in aviation decarbonisation an energy systems comparison of large commercial LH2 liquified natural gas (LNG) conventional Jet-A and LH2 dual-fuel aircraft is presented. The performance of each aircraft is compared towards 2050 over which three system changes occur: (1) LH2 aircraft technology develops; (2) both world average and region-specific grid electricity which is used to produce the hydrogen decarbonises; and (3) the International Air Transportation Association (IATA) emissions targets which are used to restrict the passenger-range performance of each aircraft tighten. In 2050 the emissions of all aircraft are thus constrained to 0.063 kg-CO2/p-km relative to 0.110 kg-CO2/p-km for the unconstrained Jet A fuelled Boeing 787-8. It is estimated that in this year an LH2 aircraft powered by fuel cells and sourcing world average electricity can travel 6000 km 20% further than the conventional Jet A aircraft that is also constrained to meet the IATA targets but not as far as the LNG aircraft. At its maximum range the LH2 aircraft carries 84% of the Jet A passenger demand. Analysis using region-specific hydrogen indicates that LH2 aircraft can travel further than LNG aircraft in North America only accounting for 17% of the global demand. 1.59 times the current aviation energy consumption is required if all conventional aircraft are replaced with LH2 designs. Under stricter emissions constraints than those outlined by the IATA LH2 outperforms LNG in Europe and the Americas accounting for 41% of the global demand. Also in these regions the range energy consumption and passenger capacity of LH2 aircraft can be improved upon by combining the advantages of LH2 with LNG in dual-fuel aircraft concepts. The use of LH2 is therefore advantageous within several prominent niches of a future decarbonising aviation system.
Challenges of Industrial-Scale Testing Infrastructure for Green Hydrogen Technologies
Apr 2023
Publication
Green hydrogen is set to become the energy carrier of the future provided that production technologies such as electrolysis and solar water splitting can be scaled to global dimensions. Testing these hydrogen technologies on the MW scale requires the development of dedicated new test facilities for which there is no precedent. This perspective highlights the challenges to be met on the path to implementing a test facility for large-scale water electrolysis photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic water splitting and aims to serve as a much-needed blueprint for future test facilities based on the authors’ own experience in establishing the Hydrogen Lab Leuna. Key aspects to be considered are the electricity and utility requirements of the devices under testing the analysis of the produced H2 and O2 and the safety regulations for handling large quantities of H2 . Choosing the right location is crucial not only for meeting these device requirements but also for improving financial viability through supplying affordable electricity and providing a remunerated H2 sink to offset the testing costs. Due to their lower TRL and requirement for a light source large-scale photocatalysis and photoelectrochemistry testing are less developed and the requirements are currently less predictable.
Current and Future role of Haber–Bosch Ammonia in a Carbon-free Energy Landscape
Dec 2019
Publication
The future of a carbon-free society relies on the alignment of the intermittent production of renewable energy with our continuous and increasing energy demands. Long-term energy storage in molecules with high energy content and density such as ammonia can act as a buffer versus short-term storage (e.g. batteries). In this paper we demonstrate that the Haber–Bosch ammonia synthesis loop can indeed enable a second ammonia revolution as energy vector by replacing the CO2 intensive methane-fed process with hydrogen produced by water splitting using renewable electricity. These modifications demand a redefinition of the conventional Haber–Bosch process with a new optimisation beyond the current one which was driven by cheap and abundant natural gas and relaxed environmental concerns during the last century. Indeed the switch to electrical energy as fuel and feedstock to replace fossil fuels (e.g. methane) will lead to dramatic energy efficiency improvements through the use of high efficiency electrical motors and complete elimination of direct CO2 emissions. Despite the technical feasibility of the electrically-driven Haber–Bosch ammonia the question still remains whether such revolution will take place. We reveal that its success relies on two factors: increased energy efficiency and the development of small-scale distributed and agile processes that can align to the geographically isolated and intermittent renewable energy sources. The former requires not only higher electrolyser efficiencies for hydrogen production but also a holistic approach to the ammonia synthesis loop with the replacement of the condensation separation step by alternative technologies such as absorption and catalysis development. Such innovations will open the door to moderate pressure systems the development and deployment of novel ammonia synthesis catalysts and even more importantly the opportunity for integration of reaction and separation steps to overcome equilibrium limitations. When realised green ammonia will reshape the current energy landscape by directly replacing fossil fuels in transportation heating electricity etc. and as done in the last century food.
Hydrogenerally - Episode 9: Nuclear Hydrogen
Jan 2023
Publication
In this episode of the podcast Debra Jones Chemistry Knowledge Transfer Manager and Ray Chegwin Nuclear Knowledge Transfer Manager from Innovate UK KTN talk about nuclear uses for hydrogen with special guest Allan Simpson Technical Lead at the National Nuclear Laboratory.
The podcast can be found on their website.
The podcast can be found on their website.
HyDeploy2 Technical Services Report: Downstream Gas Standards Review
Jan 2021
Publication
The application of appropriate procedures in the downstream gas industry (defined as any works downstream of the emergency control value) is critical in protecting consumers of gas both domestic and commercial. The two primary standard setting bodies for the downstream gas industry are the British Standard Institution (BSI) and the Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers (IGEM). To ensure only competent engineers carry out works on a gas installation all gas businesses or selfemployed persons must become a member of Gas Safe Register as stipulated by the Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998 1 and each gas operative shall be included on the register and hold a valid license card that covers the areas of gas work they undertake. Membership of the Gas Safe Register is contingent upon demonstration of competency the recognised competency assessments are based on the relevant BSI and IGEM standards. Therefore the primary source of a gas operative’s competency to work on natural gas installations are the associated BSI and IGEM natural gas downstream standards.<br/>Investigation was undertaken to understand the potential implications of introducing 20 mol% hydrogen (H2) within natural gas supplies on the ability of gas operatives to competently carry out works. This investigation took the form of identifying all BSI and IGEM standards that could be applied on natural gas installations and reviewing them within the context of the known effects of introducing a 20 mol% H2 blend. Following review a series of technical questions were generated and responded to by the Health and Safety Executive Science Division. The responses provided were then reviewed and if considered necessary challenged to provide further information. The procedural review was led by Blue Flame Associates a body deemed sufficiently competent in downstream standards training certification and investigation. The report was subsequently reviewed by industry and feedback received. The industry comments were reviewed by the Project Team and where considered necessary the report was updated.
Global Green Hydrogen-based Steel Opportunities Surrounding High Quality Renewable Energy and Iron Ore Deposits
May 2023
Publication
The steel sector currently accounts for 7% of global energy-related CO2 emissions and requires deep reform to disconnect from fossil fuels. Here we investigate the market competitiveness of one of the widely considered decarbonisation routes for primary steel production: green hydrogen-based direct reduction of iron ore followed by electric arc furnace steelmaking. Through analysing over 300 locations by combined use of optimisation and machine learning we show that competitive renewables-based steel production is located nearby the tropic of Capricorn and Cancer characterised by superior solar with supplementary onshore wind in addition to high-quality iron ore and low steelworker wages. If coking coal prices remain high fossil-free steel could attain competitiveness in favourable locations from 2030 further improving towards 2050. Large-scale implementation requires attention to the abundance of suitable iron ore and other resources such as land and water technical challenges associated with direct reduction and future supply chain configuration.
CCS Industrial Clusters: Building a Social License to Operate
Jun 2022
Publication
This paper explores the opportunities for and progress in establishing a social licence to operate (SLO) for CCS in industrial clusters in the UK focusing on the perspectives of key stakeholders. The evolution of narratives and networks relating to geographical clusters as niches for CCS in industrial decarbonisation is evaluated in relation to seven pillars supporting SLO. Evidence is drawn from a combination of cluster mapping documentary analysis and stakeholder interviews to identify the wider contexts underpinning industrial decarbonisation stakeholder networks interaction and communication critical narratives the conditions for establishing trust and confidence different scales of social licence and maintaining a SLO. The delivery of a sustainable industrial decarbonisation strategy will depend on multiple layers of social licence involving discourses at different scales and potentially for different systems (heat transport different industrial processes). Despite setbacks as a result of funding cancellations and changes to government policy the UK is positioned to be at the forefront of CCS deployment. While there is a high ambition and a strong narrative from government of the urgency to accelerate projects involving CCS clear coordinated strategy and funding frameworks are necessary to build confidence that UK policy is both compatible with net zero and economically viable.
Hydrogenerally - Episode 10: Green Hydrogen Production
Feb 2023
Publication
Debra Jones Chemistry Knowledge Transfer Manager and Simon Buckley Zero Emission Mobility Knowledge Transfer Manager from Innovate UK KTN talk about green hydrogen production with their special guest Chris Jackson CEO & Founder at Protium.
This podcast discussion centres around methods of producing clean hydrogen from renewable energy sources the innovative projects Protium is working on and how much green hydrogen will the UK produce by 2030 and beyond.
The podcast can be found on their website.
This podcast discussion centres around methods of producing clean hydrogen from renewable energy sources the innovative projects Protium is working on and how much green hydrogen will the UK produce by 2030 and beyond.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Maximizing Green Hydrogen Production from Water Electrocatalysis: Modeling and Optimization
Mar 2023
Publication
The use of green hydrogen as a fuel source for marine applications has the potential to significantly reduce the carbon footprint of the industry. The development of a sustainable and cost-effective method for producing green hydrogen has gained a lot of attention. Water electrolysis is the best and most environmentally friendly method for producing green hydrogen-based renewable energy. Therefore identifying the ideal operating parameters of the water electrolysis process is critical to hydrogen production. Three controlling factors must be appropriately identified to boost hydrogen generation namely electrolysis time (min) electric voltage (V) and catalyst amount (µg). The proposed methodology contains the following two phases: modeling and optimization. Initially a robust model of the water electrolysis process in terms of controlling factors was established using an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) based on the experimental dataset. After that a modern pelican optimization algorithm (POA) was employed to identify the ideal parameters of electrolysis duration electric voltage and catalyst amount to enhance hydrogen production. Compared to the measured datasets and response surface methodology (RSM) the integration of ANFIS and POA improved the generated hydrogen by around 1.3% and 1.7% respectively. Overall this study highlights the potential of ANFIS modeling and optimal parameter identification in optimizing the performance of solar-powered water electrocatalysis systems for green hydrogen production in marine applications. This research could pave the way for the more widespread adoption of this technology in the marine industry which would help to reduce the industry’s carbon footprint and promote sustainability.
Advancements in Hydrogen Production, Storage, Distribution and Refuelling for a Sustainable Transport Sector: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles
Jul 2023
Publication
Hydrogen is considered as a promising fuel in the 21st century due to zero tailpipe CO2 emissions from hydrogen-powered vehicles. The use of hydrogen as fuel in vehicles can play an important role in decarbonising the transport sector and achieving net-zero emissions targets. However there exist several issues related to hydrogen production efficient hydrogen storage system and transport and refuelling infrastructure where the current research is focussing on. This study critically reviews and analyses the recent technological advancements of hydrogen production storage and distribution technologies along with their cost and associated greenhouse gas emissions. This paper also comprehensively discusses the hydrogen refuelling methods identifies issues associated with fast refuelling and explores the control strategies. Additionally it explains various standard protocols in relation to safe and efficient refuelling analyses economic aspects and presents the recent technological advancements related to refuelling infrastructure. This study suggests that the production cost of hydrogen significantly varies from one technology to others. The current hydrogen production cost from fossil sources using the most established technologies were estimated at about $0.8–$3.5/kg H2 depending on the country of production. The underground storage technology exhibited the lowest storage cost followed by compressed hydrogen and liquid hydrogen storage. The levelised cost of the refuelling station was reported to be about $1.5–$8/kg H2 depending on the station's capacity and country. Using portable refuelling stations were identified as a promising option in many countries for small fleet size low-to-medium duty vehicles. Following the current research progresses this paper in the end identifies knowledge gaps and thereby presents future research directions.
Beyond the triangle of renewable Energy Acceptance: The Five Dimensions of Domestic Hydrogen Acceptance
Aug 2022
Publication
The ‘deep’ decarbonization of the residential sector is a priority for meeting national climate change targets especially in countries such as the UK where natural gas has been the dominant fuel source for over half a century. Hydrogen blending and repurposing the national grid to supply low-carbon hydrogen gas may offer respective short- and long-term solutions to achieving emissions reduction across parts of the housing sector. Despite this imperative the social acceptance of domestic hydrogen energy technologies remains underexplored by sustainability scholars with limited insights regarding consumer perceptions and expectations of the transition. A knowledge deficit of this magnitude is likely to hinder effective policymaking and may result in sub-optimal rollout strategies that derail the trajectory of the net zero agenda. Addressing this knowledge gap this study develops a conceptual framework for examining the consumer-facing side of the hydrogen transition. The paper affirms that the spatiotemporal patterns of renewable energy adoption are shaped by a range of interacting scales dimensions and factors. The UK’s emerging hydrogen landscape and its actor-network is characterized as a heterogenous system composed of dynamic relationships and interdependencies. Future studies should engage with domestic hydrogen acceptance as a co-evolving multi-scalar phenomenon rooted in the interplay of five distinct dimensions: attitudinal socio-political community market and behavioral acceptance. If arrived to behavioral acceptance helps realize the domestication of hydrogen heating and cooking established on grounds on cognitive sociopolitical and sociocultural legitimacy. The research community should internalize the complexity and richness of consumer attitudes and responses through a more critical and reflexive approach to the study of social acceptance.
The Hydrogen Fuel Cell Battery: Replacing the Combustion Engine in Heavy Vehicles
Nov 2022
Publication
This opinion piece describes how the optimal integration of hydrogen-fuel-cell with battery in a heavy highly-utilised vehicle can extend vehicle range while cutting refuelling time and reducing cost compared to a pure battery electric vehicle.
IGEM/TD/13 Edition 3 Supplement 1 - Pressure Regulating Installations for Hydrogen at Pressures Exceeding 7 Bar
Nov 2021
Publication
IGEM/TD/13 Standard applies to the safe design construction inspection testing operation and maintenance of pressure regulating installations (PRIs) in accordance with current knowledge and operational experience.
This Supplement provides additional requirements for new PRIs to be used for the transmission of Hydrogen including Natural Gas/Hydrogen blended mixtures (subsequently referred to as NG/H blends) and for the repurposing of Natural Gas (NG) PRIs for Hydrogen service.
NG/H blends are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol % Hydrogen with respect to limits on design stresses the potential effect on the material properties and damage and defect categories and acceptance levels unless an additional technical evaluation is carried out to qualify the materials.
NG/H blends containing in excess of 10 mol % Hydrogen are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol.% Hydrogen with respect to all other requirements except for hazardous areas.
This Supplement gives additional recommendations for PRIs and installations
You can purchase the standard here
This Supplement provides additional requirements for new PRIs to be used for the transmission of Hydrogen including Natural Gas/Hydrogen blended mixtures (subsequently referred to as NG/H blends) and for the repurposing of Natural Gas (NG) PRIs for Hydrogen service.
NG/H blends are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol % Hydrogen with respect to limits on design stresses the potential effect on the material properties and damage and defect categories and acceptance levels unless an additional technical evaluation is carried out to qualify the materials.
NG/H blends containing in excess of 10 mol % Hydrogen are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol.% Hydrogen with respect to all other requirements except for hazardous areas.
This Supplement gives additional recommendations for PRIs and installations
- with an upstream maximum operating pressure (MOP) not greater than 100 bar
- with an outlet pressure greater than or equal to 7 bar
- for use with Hydrogen or NG/H blends with a Hydrogen content greater than 10 %
- operating with a temperature range between -20°C and 120°C.
You can purchase the standard here
Decarbonisation of Heavy-duty Diesel Engines Using Hydrogen Fuel: A Review of the Potential Impact NOx Emissions
Jul 2022
Publication
As countries seek ways to meet climate change commitments hydrogen fuel offers a low-carbon alternative for sectors where battery electrification may not be viable. Blending hydrogen with fossil fuels requires only modest technological adaptation however since combustion is retained nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions remain a potential disbenefit. We review the potential air quality impacts arising from the use of hydrogen–diesel blends in heavy-duty diesel engines a powertrain which lends itself to hydrogen co-fuelling. Engine load is identified as a key factor influencing NOx emissions from hydrogen–diesel combustion in heavy-duty engines although variation in other experimental parameters across studies complicates this relationship. Combining results from peer-reviewed literature allows an estimation to be made of plausible NOx emissions from hydrogen–diesel combustion relative to pure-diesel combustion. At 0–30% engine load which encompasses the average load for mobile engine applications NOx emissions changes were in the range 59 to +24% for a fuel blend with 40 e% hydrogen. However at 50–100% load which approximately corresponds to stationary engine applications NOx emissions changes were in the range 28 to +107%. Exhaust gas recirculation may be able to reduce NOx emissions at very high and very low loads when hydrogen is blended with diesel and existing exhaust aftertreatment technologies are also likely to be effective. Recent commercial reporting on the development of hydrogen and hydrogen–diesel dual fuel combustion in large diesel engines are also summarised. There is currently some disconnection between manufacturer reported impacts of hydrogen-fuelling on NOx emissions (always lower emissions) and the conclusions drawn from the peer reviewed literature (frequently higher emissions).
Numerical Study on Hydrogen–Gasoline Dual-Fuel Spark Ignition Engine
Nov 2022
Publication
Hydrogen as a suitable and clean energy carrier has been long considered a primary fuel or in combination with other conventional fuels such as gasoline and diesel. Since the density of hydrogen is very low in port fuel-injection configuration the engine’s volumetric efficiency reduces due to the replacement of hydrogen by intake air. Therefore hydrogen direct in-cylinder injection (injection after the intake valve closes) can be a suitable solution for hydrogen utilization in spark ignition (SI) engines. In this study the effects of hydrogen direct injection with different hydrogen energy shares (HES) on the performance and emissions characteristics of a gasoline port-injection SI engine are investigated based on reactive computational fluid dynamics. Three different injection timings of hydrogen together with five different HES are applied at low and full load on a hydrogen– gasoline dual-fuel SI engine. The results show that retarded hydrogen injection timing increases the concentration of hydrogen near the spark plug resulting in areas with higher average temperatures which led to NOX emission deterioration at −120 Crank angle degree After Top Dead Center (CAD aTDC) start of injection (SOI) compared to the other modes. At −120 CAD aTDC SOI for 50% HES the amount of NOX was 26% higher than −140 CAD aTDC SOI. In the meanwhile an advanced hydrogen injection timing formed a homogeneous mixture of hydrogen which decreased the HC and soot concentration so that −140 CAD aTDC SOI implied the lowest amount of HC and soot. Moreover with the increase in the amount of HES the concentrations of CO CO2 and soot were reduced. Having the HES by 50% at −140 CAD aTDC SOI the concentrations of particulate matter (PM) CO and CO2 were reduced by 96.3% 90% and 46% respectively. However due to more complete combustion and an elevated combustion average temperature the amount of NOX emission increased drastically.
Life-Cycle and Applicational Analysis of Hydrogen Production and Powered Inland Marine Vessels
Aug 2023
Publication
Green energy is at the forefront of current policy research and engineering but some of the potential fuels require either a lot of deeper research or a lot of infrastructure before they can be implemented. In the case of hydrogen both are true. This report aims to analyse the potential of hydrogen as a future fuel source by performing a life-cycle assessment. Through this the well-to-tank phase of fuel production and the usage phase of the system have been analysed. Models have also been created for traditional fuel systems to best compare results. The results show that hydrogen has great potential to convert marine transport to operating off green fuels when powered through low-carbon energy sources which could reduce a huge percentage of the international community’s greenhouse gas emissions. Hydrogen produced through wind powered alkaline electrolysis produced emission data 5.25 g of CO2 equivalent per MJ compared to the 210 g per MJ produced by a medium efficiency diesel equivalent system a result 40 times larger. However with current infrastructure in most countries not utilising a great amount of green energy production the effects of hydrogen usage could be more dangerous than current fuel sources owing to the incredible energy requirements of hydrogen production with even grid (UK) powered electrolysis producing an emission level of 284 g per MJ which is an increase against standard diesel systems. From this the research concludes that without global infrastructure change hydrogen will remain as a potential fuel rather than a common one.
Hydrogen-electricity Hybrid Energy Pipelines for Railway Transportation: Design and Economic Evaluation
Mar 2024
Publication
With the decarbonization and electrification of modern railway transportation the demand for both the highcapacity electrical energy and hydrogen fuel energy is increasingly high. A novel scheme was proposed from liquid hydrogen production by surplus wind and solar energy to liquid hydrogen-electricity hybrid energy transmission for railway transportation. The 100 MW hybrid energy transmission pipeline was designed with the 10 kA/1.5 kV superconducting DC cable for electricity and cryogenic layers for liquid hydrogen and liquid nitrogen showing strong capability in transmitting “electricity + cold energy + chemical energy” simultaneously. Economic evaluation was performed with respect to the energy equipment capacity and costs with sensitivity and profitability analysis. With the discount rate 8% the dynamic payback period of the hybrid energy pipeline was 7.1 years. Results indicated that the shortest dynamic payback period of the hybrid energy pipeline was 4.8 years with the maximum transmission distance 93 km. Overall this article shows the novel concept and design of liquid hydrogen-electricity hybrid energy pipelines and proves the technical and economic feasibilities for future bulk hybrid energy transmission for railway transportation.
Ammonia as a Suitable for Fuel Cells
Aug 2014
Publication
Ammonia an important basic chemical is produced at a scale of 150 million tons per year. Half of hydrogen produced in chemical industry is used for ammonia production. Ammonia containing 17.5 wt% hydrogen is an ideal carbon-free fuel for fuel cells. Compared to hydrogen ammonia has many advantages. In this mini-review the suitability of ammonia as fuel for fuel cells the development of different types of fuel cells using ammonia as the fuel and the potential applications of ammonia fuel cells are briefly reviewed.
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