Institution of Gas Engineers & Managers

Hydrogen plays an important role in the global transition towards Net-Zero emission. While pipelines are a viable option to transport large quantities of compressed hydrogen over long distances it is not always practical in many applications. In such situations a viable option is to transport and deliver large quantities of hydrogen as cryogenic liquid. The liquefaction process cools hydrogen to cryogenic temperatures below its boiling point of -259.2 0C. Such extreme low temperature implies specific hazards and risks which are different from those associated with the relatively well-known compressed gaseous hydrogen. Managing these specific issues brings new challenges for the stakeholders.<br/>Furthermore the transfer of liquid hydrogen (LH2) and its technical handling is relatively well known for industrial gas or space applications. Experience with LH2 in public and populated areas such as truck and aircraft refuelling stations or port bunkering stations for example is limited or non-existent. Safety requirements in these applications which involve or are in proximity of untrained public are different from rocket/aerospace industry.<br/>The manuscript reviews knowhow already gained by the international hydrogen safety community; and on such basis elucidate the gaps which are yet to be filled to meet industry needs to design and operate inherently safe LH2 operations including the implications for regulations codes and standards (RCS). Where relevant the associated gaps in some underpinning sciences will be mentioned; and the need to contextualise the information and safety practices from NASA1/ESA2/JAXA3 to inform risk adoption will be summarised.

The European Union aims to increase its climate ambition and achieve climate neutrality by 2050. This necessitates expanding offshore wind energy and green hydrogen production especially for hard-to-abate industrial sectors. A study examines the impact of green hydrogen on offshore wind projects specifically focusing on a potential future North Sea offshore grid. The study utilizes data from the TYNDP 2020 Global Ambition scenario 2040 considering several European countries. It aims to assess new transmission and generation capacity utilization and understand the influencing factors. The findings show that incorporating green hydrogen production increases offshore wind utilization and capture prices. The study estimates that by 2040 the levelized cost of hydrogen could potentially decrease to e1.2-1.6/kg H2 assuming low-cost electricity supply and declining capital costs of electrolysers. These results demonstrate the potential benefits and cost reductions of integrating green hydrogen production into North Sea offshore wind projects.

Hydrogen energy the cleanest fuel presents extensive applications in renewable energy technologies such as fuel cells. However the transition process from carbon-based (fossil fuel) energy to desired hydrogen energy is usually hindered by inevitable scientific technological and economic obstacles which mainly involves complex hydrocarbon reforming reactions. Hence this paper provides a systematic and comprehensive analysis focusing on the hydrocarbon reforming mechanism. Accordingly recent related studies are summarized to clarify the intrinsic difference among the reforming mechanism. Aiming to objectively assess the activated catalyst and deactivation mechanism the rate-determining steps of reforming process have been emphasized summarized and analyzed. Specifically the effect of metals and supports on individual reaction processes is discussed followed by the metalsupport interaction. Current tendency and research map could be established to promote the technology development and expansion of hydrocarbon reforming field. This review could be considered as the guideline for academics and industry designing appropriate catalysts.

The Paris Climate Agreement seeks to keep global temperature increases under 2° Celsius ideally 1.5° Celsius. This goal necessitates significant emission reductions. By 2030 emissions are expected to range between 52 and 58 GtCO2e from their 2016 level of approximately 52 GtCO2e. This review paper explores a number of low and zero-carbon renewable fuels such as hydrogen green ammonia green methanol biomethane natural gas and synthetic methane (with natural gas and synthetic methane subject to CCUS both at processing and at final use) as alternative solutions for providing a way to rebalance transition paths in order to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement while also reaping the benefits of other sustainability targets. The results show renewables will need to account for approximately 90% of total electricity generation by 2050 and approximately 25% of non-electric energy usage in buildings and industry. However low and zero-carbon renewable fuels currently only contributes about 15% to the global energy shares and it will take about 10% more capacity to reach the 2050 goal. The transportation industry will need to take important steps toward energy efficiency and fuel switching in order to achieve the 20% emission reduction. Therefore significant new commitments to efficient low-carbon alternatives will be necessary to make this enormous change. According to this paper investing in energy efficiency and lowcarbon alternative energy must rise by a factor of about five by 2050 in comparison to 2015 levels if the 1.5 °C target is to be realised.

In the context of reducing the global emissions of greenhouse gaseshydrogen (H2) has become an attractive alternative to substitute the current fossil fuels.However its properties seasonal fluctuations and the lack of extended energy stabilitymade it extremely difficult to be economically and safely stored for a long term in recentyears. Therefore this paper investigated the potential of shale gas reservoirs (rich andlow clay−rich silica minerals) to store hydrogen upon demand. Density functional theorymolecular simulation was employed to explore hydrogen adsorption on the silica−kaolinite interface and the physisorption of hydrogen on the shale surface is revealed.This is supported by low adsorption energies on different adsorption configurations(0.01 to −0.21 eV) and the lack of charge transfer showed by Bader charge analysis.Moreover the experimental investigation was employed to consider the temperature(50−100 °C) and pressure (up to 20 bar) impact on hydrogen uptake on Midra shalespecifically palygorskite (100%) which is rich in silicate clay minerals (58.83% SiO2).The results showed that these formations do not chemically or physically maintainhydrogen; hence hydrogen can be reversibly stored. The results highlight the potential of shale gas reservoirs to store hydrogen asno hydrogen is adsorbed on the shale surface so there will be no hydrogen loss and no adverse effect on the shale’s structuralintegrity and it can be safely stored in shale reservoirs and recovered upon demand.

Concerns related to climate change have shifted global attention towards advanced sustainable and decarbonized energy systems. While renewable resources such as wind and solar energy offer environmentally friendly alternatives their inherent variability and intermittency present significant challenges to grid stability and reliability. The integration of renewable energy sources requires innovative solutions to effectively balance supply and demand in the electricity grid. This review explores the critical role of electrolyzer systems in addressing these challenges by providing ancillary services to modern electricity grids. Electrolyzers traditionally used only for hydrogen production have now emerged as versatile tools capable of responding quickly to grid load variations. They can consume electricity during excess periods or when integrated with fuel cells generate electricity during peak demand contributing to grid stability. Therefore electrolyzer systems can fulfill the dual function of producing hydrogen for the end-user and offering grid balancing services ensuring greater economic feasibility. This review paper aims to provide a comprehensive view of the electrolyzer systems’ role in the provision of ancillary services including frequency control voltage control congestion management and black start. The technical aspects market projects challenges and future prospects of using electrolyzers to provide ancillary services in modern energy systems are explored.

Hydrogen presents the UK with a substantial opportunity to drive economic growth and secure skilled jobs by leveraging our natural geological and geographical advantages robust supply chain and existing energy expertise. Hydrogen UK’s most recent Economic Impact Assessment estimates that the hydrogen sector in the UK could support approximately 30000 direct jobs and contribute more than £7 billion gross value added annually by 2030. On a global scale the hydrogen market is projected to be worth $2.5 trillion by 2050.

With international competition increasing the UK must act now to capitalise on this potential. These projections are supported by a recognition that hydrogen is one of the key solutions to decarbonising the UK economy complementing other low-carbon solutions such as electrification carbon capture biofuels and energy efficiency. Additionally hydrogen will play a vital role in enhancing the UK’s energy security by storing domestically produced energy to balance intermittent renewable sources like wind and solar. As a critical component of the clean energy transition hydrogen is indispensable to achieving net zero.

As it stands the UK is well placed to capitalise on the hydrogen opportunity and emerge as a global leader. We have made early strides in establishing a framework for hydrogen development with various pilot projects and strategic investments already underway. However the next five years will be critical for the sector as we move from strategy and planning to development and delivery. It is imperative to get the first lowcarbon production projects over the line and into construction as a matter of urgency and then deliver substantial infrastructure development regulatory clarity and sustained financial support to scale-up production and distribution. A new Government presents an opportunity for policymakers to solidify commitments and accelerate the deployment of hydrogen technology ensuring the UK remains competitive in the global race.

Our manifesto outlines policy recommendations for the new UK Government to take across production distribution and storage infrastructure end use applications trade and beyond which will support a thriving British industrial base that creates jobs and growth for British people. To achieve this the UK hydrogen industry calls on policymakers to speed up the deployment of hydrogen through the recommendations set out in this Manifesto.

This report can be found on Hydrogen UK's website.

The affordability and availability of water and energy have a huge impact on food production. Research has shown that there exists a direct and indirect link between power production and clean water generation. Hence the inclusion/importance given to the energy-water-food (EWF) nexus in the United Nations’ sustainable development goals. Acknowledging the importance of decarbonization to the global future there exists a gap in literature on the development of models that can enhance the EWF nexus reduce energy poverty and achieve 100% renewable energy in the electricity sector. Therefore the technical and economic prospect of geothermal energy for bridging the aforementioned gaps in existing works of literature is presented in this study. The energy poverty/wealthy status of a country has been confirmed to have a significant impact on economic development as economic development is largely reflected in the food-water availability. Ditto this study is focused on the interconnectivity of the EWF nexus while incorporating global decarbonization targets. Geothermal energy is of the utmost significance in East Africa due to its abundant potential and distinctive geological features. Located in the Great Rift Valley the region has an abundance of geothermal reservoirs making it an ideal location for geothermal power generation. This study is novel as a comprehensive assessment framework for energy poverty is developed and innovative models utilizing primarily the geothermal resource in the East African region to mitigate this problem are proposed and analyzed. The role of hydrogen generation from critical excess electricity production is also analyzed. The East Africa region is considered the case study for implementing the models developed. A central renewable energy grid is proposed/modelled to meet the energy demand for seven East African countries namely; Ethiopia Tanzania Uganda Djibouti Comoros Eritrea and Rwanda. This study considers 2030 2040 and 2050 as the timestamp for the implementation of the proposed models. The hybrid mix of the biomass power plant solar photovoltaic (PV) pumped hydro storage system and onshore wind power is considered to furthermore show the potency of renewable energy resources in this region. Results showed that the use of geothermal energy to meet energy demands in the case study will mitigate energy poverty and enhance the region’s EWF.

Hydrogen is one of the key solutions to decarbonising the UK economy along with other carbon abatement solutions such as electrification CCUS biofuels and energy efficiency. It provides a low carbon alternative to fossil fuels that has many of the same desirable features such as burning with a high temperature flame without producing carbon emissions during combustion. Hydrogen will be particularly valuable in hard-to-decarbonise sectors that have few cost-effective alternatives including elements of industry heavy transport and dispatchable power generation. However it’s use could be much more widespread depending on how costs preferences and policy for different low carbon solutions develop. The Government’s Hydrogen Strategy estimates that based on analysis from the Climate Change Committee (CCC) in 2050 between 20% and 35% of the UK’s final energy demand could be met with low carbon hydrogen1 . While hydrogen provides a promising solution to reducing emissions current deployment of low carbon hydrogen is low with almost all hydrogen in the UK produced from unabated fossil fuels resulting in high emissions. In the UK hydrogen production must meet the Low Carbon Hydrogen Standard (LCHS) to access government support. This is currently set at 20g CO2 e/MJ(LHV) and will ensure that future deployment will deliver significant emissions reductions when switching from fossil fuels2. The period to 2030 will be a critical time for the UK to seize the economic opportunity presented by low carbon hydrogen sector. Internationally increasing attention has been placed on hydrogen as a solution to global emissions. In the USA the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) has provided fixed rate tax credits of up to $3/kg (£2.4/kgII) for clean hydrogen production3. Closer to home the EU is targeting 10 million tonnes of domestic electrolytic production and an additional 10 million tonnes of electrolytic hydrogen imports by 20304. This will be achieved through a variety of policy levers including an auction for fixed price subsidy support for electrolytic production with a ceiling of €4.5/kg5 (£3.84/kgIII). In the UK Government have set an ambitious target of up to 10 GW of low carbon hydrogen production by 2030 with at least half of this from electrolytic sources6. This will be supported by the Hydrogen Production Business Model (HPBM) a two-way variable CfD which could potentially provide hydrogen for a price as low as the natural gas price7 . As global supply chains investment and skills are in international competition the UK must continue its ambitious hydrogen aspirations to ensure the decarbonisation and economic opportunity presented by low carbon hydrogen is captured. This study estimates the economic impact of the low carbon hydrogen sector in the UK by 2030. The impact is assessed by estimating the costs of hydrogen deployment and applying employment and GVA multipliers to these costs based on historic economic activity. These estimates are broken down by different forms of low carbon hydrogen production and end use as well as the enabling infrastructure required to connect production and demand namely hydrogen networks and storage. Both the employment and GVA are estimated for each of these value chain elements for every year between 2024 and 2030. Employment and economic growth from the hydrogen sector will be created across the UK with many benefits arising in regions that have faced historic underinvestment such as the industrial clusters and Scotland. Beyond the high-level economic benefits estimated in this study the hydrogen sector creates an opportunity for the hundreds of thousands oil and gas sector jobs in the UK to transition to a low carbon alternative.

This report can be found on Hydrogen UK's website.

Long-duration energy storage is the key challenge facing renewable energy transition in the future of well over 50% and up to 75% of primary energy supply with intermittent solar and wind electricity while up to 25% would come from biomass which requires traditional type storage. To this end chemical energy storage at grid scale in the form of fuel appears to be the ideal option for wind and solar power. Renewable hydrogen is a much-considered fuel along with ammonia. However these fuels are not only difficult to transport over long distances but they would also require totally new and prohibitively expensive infrastructure. On the other hand the existing natural gas pipeline infrastructure in developed economies can not only transmit a mixture of methane with up to 20% hydrogen without modification but it also has more than adequate long-duration storage capacity. This is confirmed by analyzing the energy economies of the USA and Germany both possessing well-developed natural gas transmission and storage systems. It is envisioned that renewable methane will be produced via well-established biological and/or chemical processes reacting green hydrogen with carbon dioxide the latter to be separated ideally from biogas generated via the biological conversion of biomass to biomethane. At the point of utilization of the methane to generate power and a variety of chemicals the released carbon dioxide would be also sequestered. An essentially net zero carbon energy system would be then become operational. The current conversion efficiency of power to hydrogen/methane to power on the order of 40% would limit the penetration of wind and solar power. Conversion efficiencies of over 75% can be attained with the on-going commercialization of solid oxide electrolysis and fuel cells for up to 75% penetration of intermittent renewable power. The proposed hydrogen/methane system would then be widely adopted because it is practical affordable and sustainable.