Publications
Catalytic Combustion Hydrogen Sensors for Vehicles: Hydrogen-Sensitive Performance Optimization Strategies and Key Technical Challenges
Jul 2025
Publication
As an efficient and low-carbon renewable energy source hydrogen plays a strategic role in the global energy transition particularly in the transportation sector. However the flammable and explosive nature of hydrogen makes leakage risks in enclosed environments a core challenge for the safe promotion of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Catalytic combustion sensors are ideal choices due to their high sensitivity and long lifespan. Nevertheless they face technical bottlenecks under vehicle operational conditions such as high-power consumption caused by elevated working temperatures slow response rates weak anti-interference capabilities and catalyst poisoning. This paper systematically reviews the research status of catalytic combustion hydrogen sensors for vehicle applications summarizes technical difficulties and development strategies from the perspectives of hydrogen-sensitive material design and integration processes and provides theoretical references and technical guidance for the development of catalytic combustion hydrogen sensors suitable for vehicle use.
Hydrogen-ready Power Plants: Optimizing Pathways to a Decarbonized Energy System in Germany
Jun 2025
Publication
The integration of hydrogen technologies is widely regarded as a transformative step in the energy transition. Recently the German government unveiled a Power Plant Strategy to promote H2-Ready Combined-Cycle Gas Turbines (H2-CCGT) which are intended to initially run on natural gas and transition to green hydrogen by 2040 at the latest. This study assesses the role of H2-Ready power plants in a low-carbon transition and explores plausible pathways using a capacity expansion model for Germany. This topic is particularly relevant for other countries aiming to deploy a large share of renewables and considering H2-CCGT as a flexible backup solution to ensure system flexibility and achieve deep decarbonization. Our results indicate that H2-CCGT enhance system flexibility and significantly alleviate the investments need for additional flexibility and renewable generation capacity and reduce renewable-energy curtailment by more than 35 %. Moreover our results also demonstrate that allowing hydrogen in CCGT does not entirely reduce the need for fossil fueled power plants as hydrogen becomes economically viable only with deep decarbonization or direct subsidies. We show that policy interventions can alter the transition pathways for achieving a decarbonized energy system. Our research challenges a prevailing narrative that financial support for hydrogen is needed to ensure a cost-efficient system decarbonization. More straightforward market-based policy instruments such as intensified CO2 pricing or regulatory frameworks such as earlier mandatory hydrogen shifts in H2-CCGT prove more efficient at cutting emissions and costs.
Decarbonized Green Hydrogen Production by Sorption-enhanced Biomass Gasification: An Integrated Techno-econonic and Environmental Evaluation
Nov 2024
Publication
Deployment of innovative renewable-based energy applications are critical for reducing CO2 emissions and achieving global climate neutrality. This work evaluates the production of decarbonized green H2 based on sorption-enhanced biomass (sawdust) gasification. The calcium-based sorbent was evaluated in a looping cycle configuration as sorption material to enhance both the CO2 capture rate and the energy-efficient hydrogen production. The investigated concept is set to produce 100 MWth high purity hydrogen (>99.95% vol.) with very high decarbonization yield (>98–99%) using woody biomass as a fuel. Conventional biomass (sawdust) gasification systems with and without CO2 capture capability are also assessed for the calculation of energy and economic penalties induced by decarbonization. The results show that the decarbonized green hydrogen manufacture by sorption-enhanced biomass gasification shows attractive performances e.g. high overall energy efficiency (about 50%) reduced energy and economic penalties for almost total decarbonization (down to 8 net efficiency points) low specific carbon emissions at system level (lower than 7 kg/MWh) and negative CO2 emission for whole biomass value chain (about − 518.40 kg/MWh). However significant developments (e.g. improving reactor design and fuel/sorbent conversion yields reducing sorbent make-up etc.) are still needed to advance this innovative concept from present level to industrial sizes.
Mapping China's Hydrogen Energy City Clusters: Old and New Synergistic Effects
Feb 2025
Publication
Hydrogen is a pivotal driver of the green economy and clean energy transition and global efforts are underway to scale up hydrogen technology and its adoption. This study explores China’s hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) city clusters policy launched in 2021 involving five clusters consisting of 44 cities to boost the country’s hydrogen economy. Drawing on cluster theory collaborative network literature and evolutionary economic geography we investigate the connections between hydrogen city clusters and historical geographically based and industrial-based clusters as well as the formation of collaborative networks among cities. By comparing these heterogeneous city networks our findings highlight the competitive edge of HFCV city clusters that capitalize on resource and innovation complementarity instead of relying solely on geographical positioning or pre-existing collaborations. The results of the Exponential Random Graph Analysis reveal that existing clusters economic strength of cities and their strategic positions within the hydrogen industrial chain significantly shape collaborative networks. This study contributes to cluster policy research by examining how China’s HFCV city clusters integrate historical advantages while fostering synergies with less connected cities offering valuable insights into inter-city collaboration and strategies for sustainable industrial development.
Energy-saving Hydrogen Production by Seawater Electrolysis Coupling Tip-enhanced Electric Field Promoted Electrocatalytic Sulfion Oxidation
Jul 2024
Publication
Hydrogen production by seawater electrolysis is significantly hindered by high energy costs and undesirable detrimental chlorine chemistry in seawater. In this work energy-saving hydrogen production is reported by chlorine-free seawater splitting coupling tip-enhanced electric field promoted electrocatalytic sulfion oxidation reaction. We present a bifunctional needle-like Co3S4 catalyst grown on nickel foam with a unique tip structure that enhances the kinetic rate by improving the current density in the tip region. The assembled hybrid seawater electrolyzer combines thermodynamically favorable sulfion oxidation and cathodic seawater reduction can enable sustainable hydrogen production at a current density of 100 mA cm−2 for up to 504 h. The hybrid seawater electrolyzer has the potential for scale-up industrial implementation of hydrogen production by seawater electrolysis which is promising to achieve high economic efficiency and environmental remediation.
Environmental Life-cycle Analysis of Hydrogen Technology in the United States
Oct 2024
Publication
Hydrogen is a zero-carbon energy carrier with potential to decarbonize industrial and transportation sectors but its life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions depend on its energy supply chain and carbon management measures (e.g. carbon capture and storage). Global support for clean hydrogen production and use has recently intensified. In the United States Congress passed several laws that incentivize the production and use of renewable and low-carbon hydrogen such as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) in 2021 and the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) in 2022 which provides tax credits of up to $3/kg depending on the carbon intensity of the produced hydrogen. A comprehensive life-cycle accounting of GHG emissions associated with hydrogen production is needed to determine the carbon intensity of hydrogen throughout its value chain. In the United States Argonne’s R&D GREET® (Greenhouse Gases Regulated emissions and Energy use in Technologies) model has been widely used for hydrogen carbon intensity calculations. This paper describes the major hydrogen technology pathways considered in the United States and provides data sources and carbon intensity results for each of the hydrogen production and delivery pathways using consistent system boundaries and most recent technology performance and supply chain data.
Advanced Biofuels in the European Union - Status Report on Technology Development, Trends, Value Chains & Markets
Jan 2024
Publication
The report provides a detailed examination of the biofuel sector and advanced biofuel sector within the European Union (EU) focusing on its economic environmental and technological dimensions. The report is an update of the CETO 2023 report. The EU is highlighted as the central point of view with specific references to EU Member States showcasing their roles in the sector. The report is essential for understanding the multifaceted role of advanced biofuels in the EU's strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance energy security. The report underscores the EU's commitment through various policies and directives such as the Renewable Energy Directive and its amendment which set sustainability criteria and define advanced biofuels. The report details the EU's leadership in scientific publications and high-value patents in the advanced biofuel sector. It gives insights into the current state of innovation and the areas where the EU is leading. The report delves into technological advancements and challenges in the biofuel sector. It discusses various advanced biofuel technologies currently being developed and commercialised. The report covers the trends in installed capacity and production of biofuels within the EU providing a comparative analysis with other regions. It details the production capacities and operational plants for bioethanol and biodiesel. The report provides comprehensive data on the economic contributions of the advanced biofuel sector to the EU's economy. The report details the sector's impact on GDP and employment highlighting the significant contributions from operation and maintenance feedstock supply construction and equipment manufacturing. The report emphasises the importance of continued investment technological development and international collaboration to ensure the advanced biofuel sector's growth and sustainability.
Utilization of Hydrogen Fuel in Reheating Furnace and its Effect on Oxide Scale Formation of Low-carbon Steels
Nov 2024
Publication
The transition from fossil-based fuel to hydrogen combustion in steel reheating furnaces is a possible way to decrease the process-originated CO2 emissions significantly. This potential change alters the furnace gas atmo sphere’s composition impacting the oxide scale formation of the slab surface. Dynamic heating tests are per formed for three low-carbon steels using different simulated combustion atmospheres including natural gas coke oven gas and hydrogen combustion in air and hydrogen combustion in oxygen. Significant differences are found in the oxidation behavior of steel grades in the simulated hydrogen reheating scenario. A steel grade with low Mn content only has an 18% increase in oxidation between methane-air to hydrogen-oxygen methods while it is 41% for a high Mn and Si steel grade and 65% for a high-Mn steel grade. Thus in terms of material loss increase by oxidation the transition of the heating method causes the least problems for the low-Mn steel grade.
Raman Gas Sensor for Hydrogen Detection via Non-Dispersive and Dispersive Approaches
Jul 2025
Publication
The current solicitude in hydrogen production and its utilization as a greenhouse-neutral energy vector pushed deep interest in developing new and reliable systems intended for its detection. Most sensors available on the market offer reliable performance; however their limitations such as restricted dynamic range hysteresis reliance on consumables transducer–sample interaction and sample dispersion into the environment are not easily overcome. In this paper a non-dispersive Raman effect-based system is presented and compared with its dispersive alternative. This approach intrinsically guarantees no sample dispersion or preparation as no direct contact is required between the sample and the transducer. Moreover the technique does not suffer from hysteresis and recovering time issues. The results evaluated in terms of sample pressures and camera integration time demonstrate promising signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and limit of detection (LOD) values indicating strong potential for direct field application.
Greening of European Sea Ports - Final Report
Mar 2024
Publication
The report addresses the environmental challenges faced by European sea ports and aims to provide guidance to smaller ports for improving their environmental performance while achieving sustainability goals through experiences gained by implementing noteworthy green initiatives in practice. Larger ports possess significant advantages in terms of financial resources risk tolerance and organisational capacity. They often have the means to invest in innovative solutions and actively participate in research and development projects leading to co-funded pilot implementation of green initiatives. They typically have more skilled personnel stronger influence and stakeholder leverage which position them better to lead the way in sustainability efforts. Finally larger ports often form robust collaborations to drive collective action towards sustainable goals. Smaller ports face unique challenges stemming from typically limited resources and risk aversion. They often prioritise mature solutions relying on tested practices to mitigate potential risks. They may lack internal expertise requiring guidance and capacity-building programmes to navigate the selection and implementation of green practices. Also they require financial and technical support particularly as they may underutilise available funding mechanisms and have limited participation in R&D programmes. They may benefit from partnerships with other ports and stakeholders to create synergies and gain experience from their lessons learned to boost their capacity to implement green practices
On the Identification of Regulatory Gaps for Hydrogen as Maritime Fuel
Feb 2025
Publication
C. Georgopoulou,
C. Di Maria,
G. Di Ilio,
Viviana Cigolotti,
Mariagiovanna Minutillo,
Mosè Rossi,
B.P. Sullivan,
A. Bionda,
Markus Rautanen,
R. Ponzini,
F. Salvadore,
M. Alvarez-Cardozo,
P. Douska,
L. Koukoulopoulos,
G. Psaraftis,
G. Dimopoulos,
T. Wannemacher,
N. Baumann,
K. Mahosl,
M. Tome,
O. Noguero Torres,
F. Oikonomou,
A. Hamalainen,
F. Chillé,
Y. Papagiannopoulos and
N. Sakellaridis
The decarbonization of the maritime sector represents a priority in the energy policy agendas of the majority of Countries worldwide and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has recently revised its strategy aiming for an ambitious zero-emissions scenario by 2050. In these regards there is a broad consensus on hydrogen as one of the most promising clean energy vectors for maritime transport and a key towards that goal. However to date an international regulatory framework for the use of hydrogen on-board of ships is absent this posing a severe limitation to the adoption of hydrogen technologies in this sector. To cope with this issue this paper presents a preliminary gap assessment analysis for the International Code of Safety for Ship Using Gases or other Low-flashpoint Fuels (IGF Code) with relation to hydrogen as a fuel. The analysis is structured according to the IGF Code chapters and a bottom-up approach is followed to review the code content and assess its relevance to hydrogen. The risks related to hydrogen are accounted for in assessing the gaps and providing a first level set of recommendations for IGF Code updates. By this means this work settles the basis for further research over the identified gaps towards the identification of a final set of recommendations for the IGF Code update.
Multiphysics Modeling of Electrolyzers under Dynamic Converter Operation
Sep 2025
Publication
The integration of electrolyzers into modern power systems is a critical step toward sustainable hydrogen production. However their dynamic power consumption and stringent operational constraints present considerable challenges. This article proposes a comprehensive multiphysics model of an alkaline electrolyzer emphasizing its interaction with a power electronic converter to ensure efficient and reliable power delivery. The study incorporates electrochemical principles to develop mathematical models that accurately represent the alkaline electrolyzer’s electrical behavior and dynamic response. A single-stage active front-end (AFE) rectifier based on SiC MOSFETs is employed as the power electronic interface offering improved energy efficiency enhanced system stability and reduced power quality issues compared to conventional approaches. Experimental results validate the performance of the proposed alkaline electrolyzer and converter models highlighting the potential for effective integration of alkaline electrolyzers into converter-based systems within renewable energy environments.
Offshore Wind Power—Seawater Electrolysis—Salt Cavern Hydrogen Storage Coupling System: Potential and Challenges
Jan 2025
Publication
Offshore wind power construction has seen significant development due to the high density of offshore wind energy and the minimal terrain restrictions for offshore wind farms. However integrating this energy into the grid remains a challenge. The scientific community is increasingly focusing on hydrogen as a means to enhance the integration of these fluctuating renewable energy sources. This paper reviews the research on renewable energy power generation water electrolysis for hydrogen production and large-scale hydrogen storage. By integrating the latest advancements we propose a system that couples offshore wind power generation seawater electrolysis (SWE) for hydrogen production and salt cavern hydrogen storage. This coupling system aims to address practical issues such as the grid integration of offshore wind power and large-scale hydrogen storage. Regarding the application potential of this coupling system this paper details the advantages of developing renewable energy and hydrogen energy in Jiangsu using this system. While there are still some challenges in the application of this system it undeniably offers a new pathway for coastal cities to advance renewable energy development and sets a new direction for hydrogen energy progress.
Emerging Perovskite-based Catalysts for Sustainable and Green Ammonia Production: A Promosing Hydrogen Energy Carrier
Feb 2025
Publication
Ammonia (NH₃) presents a comprehensive energy storage solution for future energy demands. Its synthesis plays a pivotal role in the chemical industry acting as a fundamental precursor for fertilizers explosives and a wide range of industrial applications. In recent years there has been a growing interest in exploring novel catalyst materials to enhance the efficiency selectivity and sustainability of NH3 production technologies. Among these materials perovskite-based catalysts have emerged as promising candidates due to their unique properties. This review article aims to provide a sharp and short understanding of the role of perovskite-based catalysts in emerging NH3 production technologies and to stimulate further research and innovation in this rapidly evolving field. It provides an overview of recent advances in the synthesis and characterisation of perovskite-based cat alysts for NH3 production in terms of structural properties and catalytic performance of perovskite catalysts in NH3 synthesis. The review also discusses the underlying mechanisms involved in NH3 production on perovskite surfaces highlighting the role of surface chemistry and electronic structure. Furthermore the review examines the potential applications and prospects of perovskite-based catalysts in NH3 production technologies. It explores opportunities for integrating perovskite catalysts into existing NH3 synthesis processes as well as the develop ment of process configurations to maximise the efficiency and sustainability of NH3 production.
Bridging the Gap: Public Perception and Acceptance of Hydrogen Technology in the Philippines
Jan 2025
Publication
This study examines the effects of transitioning to hydrogen production in the National Capital Region (NCR) and Palawan Province Philippines focusing on technology environment and stakeholder impact. This research conducted through a July 2022 survey aimed to assess public awareness knowledge risk perception and acceptance of hydrogen and its environmentally friendly variant green hydrogen infrastructure. Disparities were found between urban NCR and rural Palawan with lower awareness in Palawan. Safety concerns were highlighted with NCR respondents generally considering hydrogen production safe while Palawan respondents had mixed feelings particularly regarding nuclear-based hydrogen generation. This report emphasizes the potential ecological advantages of hydrogen technology but highlights potential issues concerning water usage and land impacts. It suggests targeted public awareness campaigns robust safety assurance programs regional pilot projects and integrated environmental plans to facilitate the seamless integration of hydrogen technology into the Philippines’ energy portfolio. This collective effort aims to help the country meet climate action obligations foster sustainable development and enhance energy resilience.
Performance and Emission Analysis of Hydrogen Conventional Fuels in PFI SI Engines Using CONVERGE 3.0
Aug 2025
Publication
The availability of conventional fuels such as gasoline and methane which are used in spark-ignition (SI) engines is increasingly limited by the finite nature of fossil fuel reserves. The inefficiencies in combustion are associated with reduced engine effectiveness as incomplete combustion heightens the emissions of harmful pollutants including CO2 and CO while also negatively impacting fuel economy. The objective of this research is to undertake a comparative study of engine performance and emissions for a selection of conventional fuels and hydrogen while considering varying equivalence ratios and operational speeds. To accomplish this an extensive 3-dimensional numerical simulation was carried out using CONVERGE 3.0 simulation software to model a portfueled SI engine with the SI8 Engine Premix SAGE model facilitating the simulations. The performance metrics assessed in this research include cylinder pressure specific heat ratio heat rate thermal efficiency and mean temperature. The emission characteristics are analyzed in cases of NOx CO CO2 and HC emissions. The simulation results are obtained by varying the equivalence ratios of hydrogen (0.4 0.6 and 0.9) at different engine speeds (2000 2500 and 3000 rpm). The engine setup mesh creation boundary conditions turbulence combustion and species transport models were meticulously outlined to ensure accurate simulation results. Hydrogen fuel when operated at an equivalence ratio of 0.4 and an engine speed of 3000 rpm showcases the best overall performance among all tested conditions. It achieves the highest thermal efficiency of 40.94% optimal cylinder pressure and specific heat ratio a favorable mean temperature and the lowest fuel consumption. Additionally this configuration results in zero emissions of CO and HC along with a significant reduction in CO2 emissions due to the absence of carbon in the fuel structure. However due to the high combustion temperatures associated with hydrogen NOx emissions remained present and require further mitigation strategies.
Optimal Design and Dispatch of Hydrogen Systems Inegrated in Combined Heat and Power Plants for Improving Hydrogen Economy through Excess Heat and Electricity Grid Services
Jul 2025
Publication
Renewable hydrogen is a promising energy carrier that facilitates greater renewable energy integration while supporting the decarbonization of the industrial and transportation sectors. This study investigates the optimal design and operation of two hydrogen-based energy systems. The first energy system comprises an electrolyser compressor and hydrogen storage system. It aims to supply hydrogen as a drop-in fuel for a future potential hydrogen fleet. The electrolyser provides excess heat and oxygen for a combined heat and power (CHP) plantand ancillary services to the grid for frequency support. In the second energy system the hydrogen stored in the hydrogen tank is used by a fuel cell or gas turbine to sell electricity to the grid following price signals. The optimisation algorithm developed in this study finds the optimal capacities for the hydrogen production and storage systems and optimizes the hourly dispatch of the electrolyser. The profitability of the first investigated hydrogen-based energy system is closely connected to the hydrogen production cost which fluctuates depending on the average electricity price. The profitability is also affected by the average compensation of the ancillary services and to a lesser extent by the value of excess heat and oxygen produced during the electrolysis. Only 2020 marked out by the lowest average electricity price among the investigated years could lead to a profitable investment for the first studied energy system. The breakeven hydrogen selling price varied between 24.13 SEK/kg in 2020 to 65.63 SEK/kg in 2022 while considering the extra revenues of the grid service compensation and heat and oxygen sale. If only hydrogen sale was considered the breakeven hydrogen selling prices varied between 31.28 SEK/kg in 2020 to 86.08 SEK/kg in 2022. For the second investigated hydrogen-based energy system if the threshold electricity price for activating the hydrogen consumption system is the 90th percentile of the electricity prices every week the profitability is never attained. The fuel cell system leads to lower electrolyser and hydrogen tank capacities to meet the targeted power supply given the higher assumed efficiency as compared to the gas turbine. Nevertheless the fuel cell system shows in all the investigated subcases lower net present values as compared to the gas turbine subcases due to the higher investment and running costs. The fuel cell system shows better performances in terms of net present values than the gas turbine only in an optimistic sub case marked out by higher conversion efficiencies and lower investment and running costs for the fuel cell. The profitability of the second investigated hydrogen-based energy system is guaranteed only at an annual average electricity price above 2.7 SEK/kWh.
The Role of Long-term Hydrogen Storage in Decarbonizing Remote Communities in Canada: An Optimization Framework with Economic, Environmental and Social Objectives
Nov 2024
Publication
Many small Canadian communities lack access to electricity grids relying instead on costly and polluting diesel generators despite the local availability of renewable energies like solar and wind. The intermittent nature of these sources limits reliable power supply; thus hydrogen is proposed as a cost-effective and ecofriendly long-term energy storage solution. However it remains uncertain whether hydrogen storage can significantly contribute to a 100% renewable energy system (100RES) given the diverse characteristics of these communities. Additionally the potential for fully renewable infrastructure to reduce costs mitigate adverse environmental impacts and enhance social impact is still unclear. A multi-period optimization model that balances economic environmental and social objectives to determine the optimal configuration of 100RESs for isolated communities is introduced and utilized to evaluate hydrogen as an energy storage solution to seasonal fluctuations. By identifying the best combinations of technologies tailored to local conditions and priorities this study offers valuable insights for policymakers supporting the transition to sustainable energy and achieving national climate goals. The results demonstrate that hydrogen could serve as an excellent longterm energy storage option to address energy shortages during the winter. Different combinations and sizes of energy generation and storage technologies are selected based on the characteristics of each community. For instance a community in the northern territories with high wind speeds low solar radiation extremely low temperatures and limited biomass resources should optimally rely on wind turbines to meet 80.7% of its total energy demand resulting in a 62.0% cost reduction and a 49.5% decrease in environmental impact compared to the existing diesel-based system. By 2050 all communities are projected to reduce energy costs per capita with northern territories achieving 33% and coastal areas achieving 55% cost reductions eventually leading to the utilization of hydrogen as the main energy storage medium.
Optimal Dispatch for Electric-Heat-Gas Coupling Multi-Park Integrated Energy Systems via Nash Bargaining Game
Feb 2025
Publication
To improve the energy utilization rate and realize the low-carbon emission of a park integrated energy system (PIES) this paper proposes an optimal operation strategy for multiple PIESs. Firstly the electrical power cooperative trading framework of multiple PIESs is constructed. Secondly the hydrogen blending mechanism and carbon capture system and power-to-gas system joint operation model are introduced to establish the model of each PIES. Then based on the Nash bargaining game theory a multi-PIES cooperative trading and operation model with electrical power cooperative trading is constructed. Then the alternating direction method of multipliers algorithm is used to solve the two subproblems. Finally case studies analysis based on scene analysis is performed. The results show that the cooperative operation model reduces the total cost of a PIES more effectively compared with independent operation. Meanwhile the efficient utilization and production of hydrogen are the keys to achieve carbon reduction and an efficiency increase in a PIES.
Membrane-Based Hydrogen Production: A Techno-Economic Evaluation of Cost and Feasibility
Feb 2025
Publication
As the global shift toward a low-carbon economy accelerates hydrogen is emerging as a crucial energy source. Among conventional methods for hydrogen production steam methane reforming (SMR) commonly paired with pressure swing adsorption (PSA) for hydrogen purification stands out due to its established infrastructure and technological maturity. This comprehensive techno-economic analysis focuses on membrane-based hydrogen production evaluating four configurations namely SMR SMR with PSA SMR with a palladium membrane and SMR with a ceramic–carbonate membrane coupled with a carbon capture system (CCS). The life cycle cost (LCC) of each configuration was assessed by analyzing key factors including production rate hydrogen pricing equipment costs and maintenance expenses. Sensitivity analysis was also conducted to identify major cost drivers influencing the LCC providing insights into the economic and operational feasibility of each configuration. The analysis reveals that SMR with PSA has the lowest LCC and is significantly more cost-efficient than configurations involving the palladium and ceramic–carbonate membranes. SMR with a ceramic–carbonate membrane coupled with CCS also demonstrates the most sensitive to energy variations due to its extensive infrastructure and energy requirement. Sensitivity analysis confirms that SMR with PSA consistently provides the greatest cost efficiency under varying conditions. These findings underscore the critical balance between cost efficiency and environmental considerations in adopting membrane-based hydrogen production technologies.
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