Publications
Feasibility and Sensitivity Analysis of an Off-Grid PV/Wind Hybrid Energy System Integrated with Green Hydrogen Production: A Case Study of Algeria
Nov 2025
Publication
Algeria’s transition toward sustainable energy requires the exploitation of its abundant solar and wind resources for green hydrogen production. This study assesses the technoeconomic feasibility of an off-grid PV/wind hybrid system integrated with a hydrogen subsystem (electrolyzer fuel cell and hydrogen storage) to supply both electricity and hydrogen to decentralized sites in Algeria. Using HOMER Pro five representative Algerian regions were analyzed accounting for variations in solar irradiation wind speed and groundwater availability. A deferrable water-extraction and treatment load was incorporated to model the water requirements of the electrolyzer. In addition a comprehensive sensitivity analysis was conducted on solar irradiation wind speed and the capital costs of PV panels and wind turbines to capture the effects of renewable resource and investment cost fluctuations. The results indicate significant regional variation with the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) ranging from 0.514 to 0.868 $/kWh the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) between 8.31 and 12.4 $/kg and the net present cost (NPC) between 10.28 M$ and 17.7 M$ demonstrating that all cost metrics are highly sensitive to these variations.
Benefit Allocation Strategies for Electric–Hydrogen Coupled Virtual Power Plants with Risk–Reward Tradeoffs
Nov 2025
Publication
Driven by carbon neutrality goals electric–hydrogen coupled virtual power plants (EHCVPPs) integrate renewable hydrogen production with power system flexibility resources emerging as a critical technology for large-scale renewable integration. As distributed energy resources (DERs) within EHCVPPs diversify heterogeneous resources generate diversified market values. However inadequate benefit allocation mechanisms risk reducing participation incentives destabilizing cooperation and impairing operational efficiency. To address this benefit allocation must balance fairness and efficiency by incorporating DERs’ regulatory capabilities risk tolerance and revenue contributions. This study proposes a multi-stage benefit allocation framework incorporating risk–reward tradeoffs and an enhanced optimization model to ensure sustainable EHCVPP operations and scalability. The framework elucidates bidirectional risk–reward relationships between DERs and EHCVPPs. An individualized risk-adjusted allocation method and correction mechanism are introduced to address economic-centric inequities while a hierarchical scheme reduces computational complexity from diverse DERs. The results demonstrate that the optimized scheme moderately reduces high-risk participants’ shares increasing operator revenue by 0.69% demand-side gains by 3.56% and reducing generation-side losses by 1.32%. Environmental factors show measurable yet statistically insignificant impacts. The framework meets stakeholders’ satisfaction and minimizes deviation from reference allocations.
Changes in the Operating Conditions of Distribution Gas Networks as a Function of Altitude Conditions and the Proportion of Hydrogen in Transported Natural Gas
Nov 2025
Publication
The article presents a comparison between the pressure conditions of a real low-pressure gas network and the results of hydraulic calculations obtained using various simulation programs and empirical equations. The calculations were performed using specialized gas network analysis software: STANET (ver 10.0.26) SimNet SSGas 7 and SONET. Additionally the simulation results were compared with calculations based on the empirical Darcy–Weisbach and Renouard equations. In the first part of the analysis two calculation models were compared. In one model the geodetic elevation of individual network nodes was included (elevation-aware model) while in the second calculations were performed without considering node elevation (flat model). For low-pressure gas networks accounting for elevation is critical due to the presence of the pressure recovery phenomenon which does not occur in medium- and high-pressure networks. Furthermore considering the growing need to increase the share of renewable energy the study also examined the network’s operating conditions when using natural gas–hydrogen mixtures. The following hydrogen concentrations were considered: 2.5% 5.0% 10.0% 20.0% and 50.0%. The results confirm the importance of incorporating elevation data in the modeling of low-pressure gas networks. This is supported by the small differences between calculated results and actual pressure measurements taken from the operating network. Moreover increasing the hydrogen content in the mixture intensifies the pressure recovery effect. The hydraulic results obtained using different computational tools were consistent and showed only minor discrepancies.
Durable Pt-Decorated NiFe-LDH for High-Current-Density Electrocatalytic Water Splitting Under Alkaline Conditions
Nov 2025
Publication
The development of durable and efficient catalysts capable of driving both hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions is essential for advancing sustainable hydrogen production through overall water electrolysis. In this study we developed a corrosion-mediated approach where Ni ions originate from the self-corrosion of the nickel foam (NF) substrate to construct Pt-modified NiFe layered double hydroxide (Pt-NiFeOxHy@NiFe-LDH) under ambient conditions. The obtained catalyst exhibits a hierarchical architecture with abundant defect sites which favor the uniform distribution of Pt clusters and optimized electronic configuration. The Pt-NiFeOxHy@NiFe-LDH catalyst constructed through the interaction between Pt sites and defective NiFe layered double hydroxide (NiFe-LDH) demonstrates remarkable hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) activity delivering an overpotential as low as 29 mV at a current density of 10 mA·cm−2 and exhibiting a small tafel slope of 34.23 mV·dec−1 in 1 M KOH together with excellent oxygen evolution reaction (OER) performance requiring only 252 mV to reach 100 mA·cm−2 . Moreover the catalyst demonstrates outstanding activity and durability in alkaline seawater maintaining stable operation over long-term tests. The Pt-NiFeOxHy@NiFe-LDH electrode when integrated into a two-electrode system demonstrates operating voltages as low as 1.42 and 1.51 V for current densities of 10 and 100 mA·cm−2 respectively and retains outstanding stability under concentrated alkaline conditions (6 M KOH 70 ◦C). Overall this work establishes a scalable and economically viable pathway toward high-efficiency bifunctional electrocatalysts and deepens the understanding of Pt-LDH interfacial synergy in promoting water-splitting catalysis.
Correlation Development for Para-to-Ortho Hydrogen Catalytic Conversion in Vapor-Cooled Shields of Hydrogen Tanks
Nov 2025
Publication
The cooling effect from the para-ortho hydrogen conversion (POC) combined with a vaporcooled shield (VCS) and multi-layer insulation (MLI) can effectively extend the storage duration of liquid hydrogen in cryogenic tanks. However there is currently no effective and straightforward empirical correlation available for predicting the catalytic POC efficiency in VCS pipelines. This study focuses on the development of correlations for the catalytic conversion of para-hydrogen to ortho-hydrogen in pipelines particularly in the context of cryogenic hydrogen storage systems. A model that incorporates the Langmuir adsorption characteristics of catalysts and introduces the concept of conversion efficiency to quantify the catalytic process’s performance is introduced. Experimental data were obtained in the temperature range of 141.9~229.9 K from a cryogenic hydrogen catalytic conversion facility where the effects of temperature pressure and flow rate on the catalytic conversion efficiency were analyzed. Based on a validation against the experimental data the proposed model offers a reliable method for predicting the cooling effects and optimizing the catalytic conversion process in VCS pipelines which may contribute to the improvement of liquid hydrogen storage systems enhancing both the efficiency and duration of storage.
A Review on Electric Vehicle Charging Station Planning: Infrastructure Placement, Sizing, Upgrades, and Uncertainties
Nov 2025
Publication
Electric Vehicles (EVs) are rapidly expanding resulting in increased demand on power systems and transportation networks. This study reviews recent advancements in planning EV Charging Stations (EVCSs) focusing on siting sizing grid upgrades and managing uncertainty. Analysis suggests that while many studies optimize either the location or the size of these stations few consider their combined effects resulting in missed opportunities for synergy. A lack of attention to cross-sector integration with hydrogen inadequate treatment of grid reinforcement and fragmented approaches to modeling uncertainties such as EV behavior renewable energy variability and market dynamics is also observed. To address these gaps a synthesis of the interdependencies between siting and sizing is provided along with a review of multi-energy integration opportunities an evaluation of Vehicle-to-Grid technology and smart charging including technical benefits and challenges strategies that link the deployment of EVCS to grid upgrades and a taxonomy of uncertainty sources along with advanced stochastic and data-driven solutions. This review emphasizes the importance of integrated data-informed planning in the development of EV charging infrastructure.
Coordinated Operation Mechanism of Electric-hydrogen-traffic Coupling System that Considers Carbon Emissions and Uncertainties
Nov 2025
Publication
During the critical period of energy transition the collaborative optimization of the electricity-hydrogentransportation coupling system is of vital importance for achieving efficient energy utilization and sustainable development.This paper proposes a collaborative operation mechanism of Distributed Robust Optimization (DRO) considering carbon emissions. Firstly a Stackelberg game dynamic pricing strategy is constructed for the integrated energy station (IES) and the electricity-hydrogen hybrid charging station (HRS) where the upper-level IES optimizes the electricity price setting strategy and the lower-level HRS dynamically adjusts the electricity purchase-hydrogen production plan. Secondly the Wasserstein distance is used to describe the uncertainties of hydrogen vehicle loads and wind-solar power generation and a bisection algorithm-column constraint generation (BA-C&CG) hybrid algorithm is designed to solve the model. Finally the numerical example verification shows that the daily operation cost of HRS under the proposed mechanism is as low as 1108.53 EUR which is 10.58 % and 7.38 % lower than that of the commonly used stochastic optimization (SO) and robust optimization (RO) respectively. The variance analysis (F = 536.05P < 0.001) confirms that the cost advantage is statistically significant. In terms of carbon emission reduction effect the DRO-Stackelberg game model has the lowest daily carbon cost (6.98EUR). This mechanism effectively balances the economic and robustness of the system and the single dispatch calculation time is only 112.09 s meeting the real-time operation requirements of engineering. It provides technical support for the low-carbon collaborative operation of the electricity-hydrogen-transportation coupling system.
Building a Hydrogen Economy: Does France have the Industrial Capacity for a Low-carbon Transition?
Oct 2025
Publication
The energy transition towards low-carbon hydrogen (H2) in France is expected to require deep industrial planning to develop electrolysis and H2 production infrastructure. This study employs an input–output method to simulate a new sector of electrolysis-produced hydrogen (e-H2) that supplies two-hydrogen intensive sectors petroleum refining and ammonia. We construct two input–output models a demand-driven model for e-H2 sector development (the investment phase) and a mixed model for e-H2 production (the operation phase). The results demonstrate that the e-H2 sector depends on industries such as machinery electrical equipment construction and metal products manufacturing in the investment phase with strong backward linkages to the power sector in the exploitation phase. The results reveal that the energy shock (350 kt of e-H2 per year) generates significant growth (€1.3 Bn of gross domestic product) and jobs (3600) but strongly depends on industries’ capability to expand and recruit. Recommendations advise public policy development to address the need to reinforce key industries to support e-H2 production due to inter-industry dependence and the need for more attractive skilled and technician jobs in sectors that are already experiencing recruitment tensions. At much higher e-H2 shocks in the steel sector (700 kt e-H2) and other industries (415 kt e-H2) even greater amounts of domestic resources would be required. Therefore de-carbonising the entire H2 sector require ambitious policy planning to support industrial empowerment research programmes and labour training so that H2 becomes an enabling technology of the energy transition.
Tailored Heat Treatments to Characterise the Fracture Resistance of Critical Weld Regions in Hydrogen Transmission Pipelines
Nov 2025
Publication
A new protocol is presented to directly characterise the toughness of microstructural regions present within the weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) the most vulnerable location governing the structural integrity of hydrogen transport pipelines. Heat treatments are tailored to obtain bulk specimens that replicate predominantly ferriticbainitic bainitic and martensitic microstructures present in the HAZ. These are applied to a range of pipeline steels to investigate the role of manufacturing era (vintage versus modern) chemical composition and grade. The heat treatments successfully reproduce the hardness levels and microstructures observed in the HAZ of existing natural gas pipelines. Subsequently fracture experiments are conducted in air and pure H2 at 100 bar revealing a reduced fracture resistance and higher hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of the HAZ microstructures with initiation toughness values as low as 32 MPa√ m. The findings emphasise the need to adequately consider the influence of microstructure and hard brittle zones within the HAZ.
Catalysts for Unlocking H2 Production from NH3: A Process Design Perspective
Nov 2025
Publication
NH3 cracking is gaining attention as a promising route for on-demand carbon-free H2 production particularly in off-grid or distributed energy applications. Nevertheless its practical implementation hinges on the development of catalysts not only highly active but also cost-effective and thermally efficient. Starting from the state-of-theart catalyst for NH3 decomposition (nickel-based) the most promising catalytic systems (ruthenium-based) are critically reviewed with a focus on the interplay between catalyst activation energy thermal duty and operating conditions. In view of discussing whether the implementation of noble-based catalysts can be practical or not a technical analysis of the cracking furnace with different Ru-based catalytic systems is presented referring to a decentralized application representative of compact yet industrially relevant units. The trade-off between technical and economic performance is quantified with the aim of offering design guidelines for developing scalable NH3 cracking.
Economic Hydrogen Production by Water Splitting with Different Catalysts and Temperatures under Thermal and Gamma Radiation-thermal Processes
Nov 2025
Publication
This article describes hydrogen production via water splitting because of high green energy demand globally. The amounts of hydrogen produced with zirconium in thermal processes at 473 K and radiation-thermal processes at 473 K and 773K were 1.55 x 1018 2.2 x 1018 and 4.1 x 1018 molecules/g. These amounts on aluminum and stainless steel were 1.05 x 1018 1.95 x 1018 and 3.0 x 1018 molecules/g; and 0.30 x 1018 1.27 x 1018 and 2.6 x 1018 molecules/g. A comparison was carried out and the order of hydrogen production was zirconium > aluminum > stainless steel. The activation energy in radiation-thermal and thermal processes were 14.2 and 65.0 kJ/mol (Zr) 12.05 and 63.1 kJ/mol (Al) and 11.16 and 61.52 kJ/mol (SS). The mechanisms of water splitting were developed and described for future use. The described methods are scalable and can be transferred to a pilot scale.
Integration of Hydrogen Production Using High Temperature Steam Electrolysis with Advanced Nuclear Energy Systems
Nov 2025
Publication
With the promise of increased economics and improved safety advanced nuclear reactors such as the Natrium design by TerraPower and GE Hitachi can help many electricity energy markets transition to carbon-free power smoothly. Operating at higher temperatures the Natrium design based on a sodium fast reactor is suitable for co-located hydrogen production using high temperature steam electrolysis. This study models and analyzes three Natrium integrated energy systems with thermal energy storage and co-located hydrogen production. The first two configurations focus on improving thermal efficiency of the reheat Rankine cycle used in the Natrium design while the final configuration improves hydrogen production efficiency. Results indicate that coupling the Natrium system with hydrogen production can boost its energy efficiency by 1% and using low grade steam directly from the Natrium steam cycle for hydrogen production significantly reduces system complexity and increases the overall system efficiency by 3%.
Inverse Design and Porous Metal Printing of GDL-integrated Flow Field Plates for High-temperature Hydrogen Fuel Cells
Nov 2025
Publication
High-temperature (HT) proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells (FC) offer key advantages for sustainable transportation especially in heavy-duty applications due to their improved thermal efficiency and water management. This study introduces an inverse design framework to develop flow field plates integrated with a gas diffusion layer (GDL) enabling scalable electrochemical performance from the unit cell to the plate level. A reduced-order homogenization-based multiphysics model is developed to evaluate designs with approximately 1000× faster computation. Flow channel orientation is optimized using a tensor field method and dehomogenized into manufacturable geometries. Optimized designs validated through high-fidelity 3D simulations show up to 12% higher average current density and 88% lower pressure drop compared to conventional parallel and mesh configurations. To address fabrication challenges solid-to-porous metal additive manufacturing is employed producing monolithic structures that integrate flow channels with a porous metal GDL. Both numerical and physical tests confirm high permeability and improved power output compared to carbon-based GDLs. These findings highlight the effectiveness of combining advanced computational modeling with metal 3D printing to enhance the performance and manufacturability of high-temperature PEMFC supporting their broader adoption in sustainable energy applications.
Evaluation of the Economic and Technological Aspects of Producing Blue Hydrogen via Ethanol-steam Reforming with Carbon Capture
Nov 2025
Publication
An industrially relevant method for obtaining hydrogen from hydrocarbons without emitting carbon into the atmosphere involves ethanol-steam reforming followed by carbon capture. Herein we present a detailed conceptual process using ethanol-stream reforming to produce blue hydrogen integrated with a carbon capture plant followed by a techno-economic analysis. In the first step the Aspen plus-based simulation of ethanolstream reforming reactions is performed to optimize the reforming reactor geometrical parameters for a 10 t/ day of hydrogen production. Afterward the carbon capture system was designed with a standalone absorber and stripper which were subsequently integrated for solvent makeup calculation. Considering the target value of hydrogen production the optimized reactor diameter and length were found to be 0.18 and 2 m respectively corresponding to reactant flow (200 t/day) and heat duty (3.14 MW) at optimal circumstances. Absorber and stripper packing heights of 12.2 m and 5 m respectively with column diameters of 1.22 m and 2.60 m are required to extract 95 % CO2 from the reformed product stream. The techno-economic analysis indicates that the cost of producing one kilogram of H2 is $3.5. The computed internal rate of return is 16.6 % the discounted payback period is 6 years and the net present value is $13 million.
Predicting Combustor Performance for Hydrogen-propane Fuel Blends in Gas Turbines: A Coupled Thermofluid and Chemical Reactor Network Model
Nov 2025
Publication
The transition to carbon-neutral energy has renewed interest in hydrogen as a gas turbine fuel in the form of fuel blends with hydrocarbons. However the distinct fluid properties and chemical kinetics of hydrogen and hydrocarbon blends necessitate redeveloped combustor designs. While conventional combustor design and emissions estimation through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is preferred it is computationally intensive and impractical for system-level simulations. To alleviate this a thermofluid network model was developed to predict the performance of a MGT combustor operating on pure and fuel blends of propane and hydrogen. It incorporates sub-component pressure losses and heat transfer and presents the first implementation of well-stirred and plug-flow reactors into Flownex SE. A 3-D CFD study of the combustor revealed that hydrogen addition improved combustion efficiency and reduced wall temperatures. However although it produces less CO2 it leads to 70 % more CO and 80 % more NO than for propane-only operation. Validated against the 3-D CFD data the network model predicted the combustor outlet total temperature and pressure within 0.55 % and 0.26 % respectively. The change in total pressure across subcomponents (<6 %) and the mass flow distribution showed similarly strong agreement. Major species mass fractions CO2 and H2O were predicted accurately. However by assuming that the temperature and composition are uniform within combustion zones zone and wall temperatures and pollutant predictions deviated considerably. NO was overpredicted by a factor of 8.2–10.7 and CO was overpredicted for propane-only but underpredicted for blended cases. The network model achieved this performance 420 times faster than CFD making it suitable for rapid design exploration.
Reliability and Risk Assessment of Hydrogen-Powered Marine Propulsion Systems Based on the Integrated FAHP-FMECA Framework
Nov 2025
Publication
With the IMO’s 2050 decarbonization target hydrogen is a key zero-carbon fuel for shipping but the lack of systematic risk assessment methods for hydrogen-powered marine propulsion systems (under harsh marine conditions) hinders its large-scale application. To address this gap this study proposes an integrated risk evaluation framework by fusing Failure Mode Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) with the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP)—resolving the limitation of traditional single evaluation tools and adapting to the dynamic complexity of marine environments. Scientific findings from this framework confirm that hydrogen leakage high-pressure storage tank valve leakage and inverter overload are the three most critical failure modes with hydrogen leakage being the primary risk source due to its high severity and detection difficulty. Further hazard matrix analysis reveals two key risk mechanisms: one type of failure (e.g. insufficient hydrogen concentration) features “high severity but low detectability” requiring real-time monitoring; the other (e.g. distribution board tripping) shows “high frequency but controllable impact” calling for optimized operations. This classification provides a theoretical basis for precise risk prevention. Targeted improvement measures (e.g. dual-sealed valves redundant cooling circuits AI-based regulation) are proposed and quantitatively validated reducing the system’s overall risk value from 4.8 (moderate risk) to 1.8 (low risk). This study’s core contribution lies in developing a universally applicable scientific framework for marine hydrogen propulsion system risk assessment. It not only fills the methodological gap in traditional evaluations but also provides a theoretical basis for the safe promotion of hydrogen shipping supporting the scientific realization of the IMO’s decarbonization goal.
Techno-economic Feasibility of Centralized and Decentralized Ammonia Production in the United States
Nov 2025
Publication
Ammonia is a cornerstone of modern agriculture supplying the nitrogen essential for crops that nourish nearly half the global population. Yet its production is responsible for ~2 % of global greenhouse gas emissions. To meet climate and food security goals sustainable low-carbon and resilient ammonia production systems are needed. Here we develop a spatially explicit techno-economic model to compare centralized and decentralized ammonia production pathways across the U.S. a major global ammonia producer and consumer spanning the full supply chain from hydrogen production to fertilizer delivery. We integrate high-resolution supply and demand data and apply linear optimization to estimate delivered ammonia costs accounting for geographic mismatches and transportation. Our results show that decentralized ammonia production whether powered by grid electricity or solar energy is substantially more expensive than centralized production from natural gas or coal. Centralized natural gas-based ammonia has a median production cost of 326 USD/tonne NH3 compared to 499 USD/tonne for coal. Decentralized grid-powered systems range from 659 to 1634 USD/tonne and solar-powered systems from 1077 to 2266 USD/tonne. Transportation costs for centralized production range from 7 to 85 USD/tonne with a median of 40 USD/tonne resulting in a delivered cost of 343 USD/tonne. Median delivered costs for decentralized grid- and solar-powered systems are 1069 and 1494 USD/tonne respectively. Decentralized systems require electricity prices below 19 USD/MWh (grid) and 17 USD/MWh (solar) to achieve cost parity well below 2024 U S. averages of 117 USD/MWh. These results highlight the economic challenges facing decentralized ammonia production and the importance of electricity cost reductions tax credits carbon pricing or further technological breakthroughs for broader viability.
Simulation of the Refuelling Process for an LH2-powered Commercial Aircraft Part 1 - Modelling and Validation
Nov 2025
Publication
Liquid hydrogen (LH2) is a promising candidate for zero emission aviation but its cryogenic properties make the refuelling process fundamentally different from that of conventional jet fuels. Although previous studies have addressed LH2 storage and system integration detailed modelling of the refuelling process remains limited. This paper presents the first part of a two-part study focused on simulation of the refuelling process for an LH2-powered commercial aircraft. An existing tank model is substantially modified to more accurately capture relevant physical phenomena including heat transfer and droplet dynamics during top-fill spray injection. Newly available experimental data on LH2 no-vent filling enables direct validation of the model under conditions that match the experimental setup. A sensitivity analysis identifies the most influential parameters that affect model precision including loss coefficient droplet diameter radiative heat ingress and vent-closing pressure. The validated model forms the basis for Part 2 of this study in which it is applied to a representative LH2-powered commercial aircraft to simulate refuelling times quantify venting losses and assess the impact of key operational settings. These results support the design of efficient LH2 refuelling systems for future aircraft and airport infrastructure.
Techno-economic Assessment of Hythane-fueled Industrial SOFC Systems
Nov 2025
Publication
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) systems offer high-efficiency conversion of the chemical energy of fuel gases into electrical energy. To meet market and policy targets such systems must be able of operating on an industrial scale and be compatible with environmentally friendly fuels. This study models the scale-up of a 750 W naturalgas-fueled SOFC to a 240 kW system with various gas-path configurations evaluating the impact of blending up to 30 vol% of hydrogen (H2) into the methane feed. Aspen Plus simulations coupled with pressure-loss and carbon-deposition models were used to optimize recirculation ratio and reactant utilization for maximum efficiency. The parallel configuration achieved the highest electrical efficiency of 64.0 % while series-connected and intermediate systems suffered from increased pressure losses. H2 admixture simulations confirm that operation is feasible without loss of efficiency in the small- and large-scale systems due to reduced carbondeposition potential. A techno-economic analysis indicates a 91.7 % cost reduction through scale-up and a 1.6 % cost increase for adjusting the system to H2 admixtures. The economic viability of the large-scale system was evaluated for all tested fuel compositions (0.201–0.204 €/kWh) with payback times under 20 years at market-relevant electricity prices. These results demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of large-scale H2-adapted SOFC systems for industrial decarbonization.
Estimation of the Potential for Green Hydrogen Production from Untapped Renewable Energy Sources in Spain in 2024
Nov 2025
Publication
The increasing integration of renewable energy sources (RES) in Spain is leading to substantial amounts of surplus electricity presenting a strategic opportunity for green hydrogen production as a key enabler of energy storage and decarbonisation. This study quantifies this untapped potential for 2024. Based on the difference between installed renewable capacity and actual generation an economically viable surplus of 18419 GWh was identified within an optimal 10-h operating window. The hydrogen production potential was modelled for three electrolysis technologies—Alkaline (AEL) Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) and Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM)—using total energy consumption values of 57.40 65.55 and 59.95 MWh/t H2 respectively including auxiliary systems. The estimated annual hydrogen production ranges from 280999 t (PEM) to 320897 t (AEL) with AEM yielding an intermediate value of 307247 t. The analysis reveals a strong regional concentration with more than 63% of the potential located in Castile and León Andalusia Castile-La Mancha and Extremadura. While this range represents an upper technical limit it highlights the significant opportunity to valorise surplus renewable energy contingent on targeted investment and a supportive regulatory framework.
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