Publications

Using electricity for heating can contribute to decarbonization and provide flexibility to integrate variable renewable energy. We analyze the case of electric storage heaters in German 2030 scenarios with an open-source electricity sector model. We find that flexible electric heaters generally increase the use of generation technologies with low variable costs which are not necessarily renewables. Yet making customary night-time storage heaters temporally more flexible offers only moderate benefits because renewable availability during daytime is limited in the heating season. Respective investment costs accordingly have to be very low in order to realize total system cost benefits. As storage heaters feature only short-term heat storage they also cannot reconcile the seasonal mismatch of heat demand in winter and high renewable availability in summer. Future research should evaluate the benefits of longer-term heat storage.

The increasing feed-in of intermittent renewable energy sources into the electricity grids worldwide is currently leading to technical challenges. Stationary energy storage systems provide a cost-effective and efficient solution in order to facilitate the growing penetration of renewable energy sources. Major technical and economical challenges for energy storage systems are related to lifetime efficiency and monetary returns. Holistic simulation tools are needed in order to address these challenges before investing in energy storage systems. One of these tools is SimSES a holistic simulation framework specialized in evaluating energy storage technologies technically and economically. With a modular approach SimSES covers various topologies system components and storage technologies embedded in an energy storage application. This contribution shows the capabilities and benefits of SimSES by providing in-depth knowledge of the implementations and models. Selected functionalities are demonstrated with two use cases showing the easy-to-use simulation framework while providing detailed technical analysis for expert users. Hybrid energy storage systems consisting of lithium-ion and redox-flow batteries are investigated in a peak shaving application while various system topologies are analyzed in a frequency containment reserve application. The results for the peak shaving case study show a benefit in favor of the hybrid system in terms of overall cost and degradation behavior in applications that have a comparatively low energy throughput during lifetime. In terms of system topology a cascaded converter approach shows significant improvements in efficiency for the frequency containment reserve application.

The percentage of the population in urban areas has increased by ten points from 2000 (46%) to 2020 (56%); it is expected to reach up to 70% by 2050. This undoubtedly will encourage society to use alternative transports. On the other hand the widespread fear of pandemics seems to be here to stay and it is causing most people to leave public transport to use private cars and a few have chosen unipersonal electric vehicles. As a consequence the decision of using private cars negatively affects the air quality and consequently urban population health. This paper aims to demonstrate a sustainable solution for urban mobility based on a hydrogen powered unipersonal electric vehicle which as shown provides great advantages over the conventional battery powered unipersonal electric vehicle. To show this the authors have developed both vehicles in comparable versions using the same platform and ensuring that the total weight of the unipersonal electric vehicle was the same in both cases. They have been subjected to experimental tests that support the features of the hydrogen-based configuration versus the battery-based one including higher specific energy more autonomy and shorter recharge time.

The unique layered morphology of van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures give rise to a blended set of electrochemical properties from the 2D sheet components. Herein an overview of their potential in energy storage systems in place of precious metals is conducted. The most recent progress on vdW electrocatalysis covering the last three years of research is evaluated with an emphasis on their catalytic activity towards the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). This analysis is conducted in pair with the most active Pt-based commercial catalyst currently utilized in energy systems that rely on the above-listed electrochemistry (metal–air battery fuel cells and water electrolyzers). Based on current progress in HER catalysis that employs vdW materials several recommendations can be stated. First stacking of the two types vdW materials with one being graphene or its doped derivatives results in significantly improved HER activity. The second important recommendation is to take advantage of an electronic coupling when stacking 2D materials with the metallic surface. This significantly reduces the face-to-face contact resistance and thus improves the electron transfer from the metallic surface to the vdW catalytic plane. A dual advantage can be achieved from combining the vdW heterostructure with metals containing an excess of d electrons (e.g. gold). Despite these recent and promising discoveries more studies are needed to solve the complexity of the mechanism of HER reaction in particular with respect to the electron coupling effects (metal/vdW combinations). In addition more affordable synthetic pathways allowing for a well-controlled confined HER catalysis are emerging areas.

This paper compares the well-to-wheel (WTW) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of representative vehicle types–internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) battery electric vehicle (BEV) and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV)–in the future (2030) based on a WTW analysis for the present (2017) and an analysis of various energy policies that could affect future emissions. South Korea was selected as the target region because it has detailed energy policies related to alternative vehicles. The WTW analysis for the present was performed based on three sets of subordinate analyses: (1) life cycle analyses of eight base fuels; (2) life cycle analyses of electricity and hydrogen; and (3) analyses of the fuel economies of seven vehicle types. From the WTW analysis for the present the national average WTW GHG emissions of ICEV-gasoline ICEV-diesel ICEV-liquefied petroleum gas HEV PHEV BEV and FCEV were calculated as 225 233 201 159 133 109 and 55 g-CO₂-eq./km respectively. For calculating the WTW GHG emissions in the future two policies regarding electricity production and three policies regarding hydrogen production were analysed. Three cases with varying the degrees of improvements in fuel economies were considered. Six future scenarios were constructed and each scenario represented the case in which each energy policy is enacted. In the reference scenario for compact car the WTW GHG emissions of ICEVs-gasoline HEV PHEV BEV-200 mile FCEV were analysed as 161 110 97 86 and 91 g-CO₂-eq./km respectively. The differences between ICEV/HEV and BEV were predicted to decrease in the future mainly due to larger improvements of ICEV/HEV in fuel economies compared to that of BEV. The future life cycle GHG emissions of electricity and hydrogen were calculated according to energy policy. Both two policies regarding power generation were confirmed to increase the benefits of utilizing BEVs but current energy policy regarding hydrogen production were confirmed to decrease the benefits of utilizing FCEVs. Based on the comprehensive results of this study a framework was proposed to evaluate the impacts of an energy policy regarding electricity and hydrogen production on the benefits of using BEVs and FCEVs compared to using HEVs and ICEVs. This framework can also be utilized in other countries when they assess and establish their energy policies.

This paper investigates environmental impacts of high pressure alkaline water electrolysis systems. An advanced system with membranes on polymer basis is compared to a state-of-the-art system with asbestos membranes using a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. For the advanced system a new improved membrane technology has been investigated within the EU research project “ELYGRID”. Results indicate that most environmental impacts are caused by the electricity supply necessary for operation. During the construction phase cell stacks are the main contributor to environmental impacts. New improved membranes have relatively small contributions to impacts caused by cell construction within the advanced systems. As main outcome the systems comparison illustrates a better ecological performance of the new developed system

The use of hydrogen as an alternative to fossil fuels for vehicle propulsion is already a reality. However due to its physical characteristics storage is still a challenge. There is an innovative way presented in this study to store hydrogen in conventional vehicles propelled by spark-ignition reciprocating engines and fuel cells using hydrogen as fuel; the storage of hydrogen will be at high pressure within small spheres randomly packed in a tank like the conventional tank of fuel used nowadays in current vehicles. Therefore the main purpose of the present study is to assess the performance of this storage system and compare it to others already applied by car manufacturers in their cars. In order to evaluate the performance of this storage system some parameters were taken into account: The energy stored by volume and stored by weight hydrogen leakage and compliance with current standards. This system is safer than conventional storage systems since hydrogen is stored inside small spheres containing small amounts of hydrogen. Besides its gravimetric energy density (GED) is threefold and the volumetric energy density (VED) is about half when compared with homologous values for conventional systems and both exceed the targets set by the U.S. Department of Energy. Regarding the leakage of hydrogen it complies with the European Standards provided a suitable choice of materials and dimensions is made.

This paper presents the results of a demonstration project including building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) solar panels a residential building and a hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) for combined mobility and power generation aiming to achieve a net zero-energy residential building target. The experiment was conducted as part of the Car as Power Plant project at The Green Village in the Netherlands. The main objective was to assess the end-user’s potential of implementing FCEVs in vehicle-to-grid operation (FCEV2G) to act as a local energy source. FCEV2G field test performance with a Hyundai ix35 FCEV are presented. The car was adapted using a power output socket capable of delivering up to 10 kW direct current (DC) to the alternating current (AC) national grid when parked via an off-board (grid-tie) inverter. A Tank-To-AC-Grid efficiency (analogous to Tank- To-Wheel efficiency when driving) of 44% (measured on a Higher Heating Value basis) was obtained when the car was operating in vehicle-to-grid (V2G) mode at the maximum power output. By collecting and analysing real data on the FCEV power production in V2G mode and on BIPV production and household consumption two different operating modes for the FCEV offering balanced services to a residential microgrid were identified namely fixed power output and load following. Based on the data collected one-year simulations of a microgrid consisting of 10 all-electric dwellings and 5 cars with the different FCEV2G modes of operation were performed. Simulation results were evaluated on the factors of autonomy self-consumption of locally produced energy and net-energy consumption by implementing different energy indicators. The results show that utilizing an FCEV working in V2G mode can reduce the annual imported electricity from the grid by approximately 71% over one year and aiding the buildings in the microgrid to achieve a net zero-energy building target. Furthermore the simulation results show that utilizing the FCEV2G setup in both modes analysed could be economically beneficial for the end-user if hydrogen prices at the pump fall below 8.24 €/kg.

The NASA Safety Standard which establishes a uniform process for hydrogen system design materials selection operation storage and transportation is presented. The guidelines include suggestions for safely storing handling and using hydrogen in gaseous (GH2) liquid (LH2) or slush (SLH2) form whether used as a propellant or non-propellant. The handbook contains 9 chapters detailing properties and hazards facility design design of components materials compatibility detection and transportation. Chapter 10 serves as a reference and the appendices contained therein include: assessment examples; scaling laws explosions blast effects and fragmentation; codes standards and NASA directives; and relief devices along with a list of tables and figures abbreviations a glossary and an index for ease of use. The intent of the handbook is to provide enough information that it can be used alone but at the same time reference data sources that can provide much more detail if required.

In this analysis life cycle environmental burdens and total costs of ownership (TCO) of current (2017) and future (2040) passenger cars with different powertrain configurations are compared. For all vehicle configurations probability distributions are defined for all performance parameters. Using these a Monte Carlo based global sensitivity analysis is performed to determine the input parameters that contribute most to overall variability of results. To capture the systematic effects of the energy transition future electricity scenarios are deeply integrated into the ecoinvent life cycle assessment background database. With this integration not only the way how future electric vehicles are charged is captured but also how future vehicles and batteries are produced. If electricity has a life cycle carbon content similar to or better than a modern natural gas combined cycle powerplant full powertrain electrification makes sense from a climate point of view and in many cases also provides reductions in TCO. In general vehicles with smaller batteries and longer lifetime distances have the best cost and climate performance. If a very large driving range is required or clean electricity is not available hybrid powertrain and compressed natural gas vehicles are good options in terms of both costs and climate change impacts. Alternative powertrains containing large batteries or fuel cells are the most sensitive to changes in the future electricity system as their life cycles are more electricity intensive. The benefits of these alternative drivetrains are strongly linked to the success of the energy transition: the more the electricity sector is decarbonized the greater the benefit of electrifying passenger vehicles.

In this study the optimal sizing of a hybrid battery/hydrogen Energy Storage System “ESS” is assessed via a model-based parametric analysis in the context of a real hybrid renewable microgrid located in Huelva Spain supplying a real-time monitored residential load (3.5 kW; 5.6 MWh/year) in island mode. Four storage configurations (battery-only H2-only hybrid battery priority and hybrid H2 priority) are assessed under different Energy Management Strategies analysing system performance parameters such as Loss of Load “LL” (kWh;%) Over Production “OP” (kWh;%) round-trip storage efficiency ESS (%) and total storage cost (€) depending on the ESS sizing characteristics. A parallel approach to the storage optimal sizing via both multi-dimensional sensitivity analysis and PSO is carried out in order to address both sub-optimal and optimal regions respectively. Results show that a hybridised ESS capacity is beneficial from an energy security and efficiency point of view but can represent a substantial additional total cost (between 100 and 300 k€) to the hybrid energy system especially for the H2 ESS which presents higher costs. Reaching 100% supply from renewables is challenging and introducing a LL threshold induces a substantial relaxation of the sizing and cost requirements. Increase in battery capacity is more beneficial for the LL abatement while increasing H2 capacity is more useful to absorb large quantities of excess energy. The optimal design via PSO technique is complemented to the parametric study.

Rapid industrial development vehicles domestic activities and mishandling of garbage are the main sources of pollutants which are destroying the atmosphere. There is a need to continuously monitor these pollutants for the safety of the environment and human beings. Conventional instruments for monitoring of toxic gases are expensive bigger in size and time-consuming. Hybrid materials containing organic and inorganic components are considered potential candidates for diverse applications including gas sensing. Gas sensors convert the information regarding the analyte into signals. Various polymeric/inorganic nanohybrids have been used for the sensing of toxic gases. Composites of different polymeric materials like polyaniline (PANI) poly (4-styrene sulfonate) (PSS) poly (34-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT) etc. with various metal/metal oxide nanoparticles have been reported as sensing materials for gas sensors because of their unique redox features conductivity and facile operation at room temperature. Polymeric nanohybrids showed better performance because of the larger surface area of nanohybrids and the synergistic effect between polymeric and inorganic materials. This review article focuses on the recent developments of emerging polymeric/inorganic nanohybrids for sensing various toxic gases including ammonia hydrogen nitrogen dioxide carbon oxides and liquefied petroleum gas. Advantages disadvantages operating conditions and prospects of hybrid composites have also been discussed.

Gas pipelines are exposed to operational loads combined with corrosive environment action during their long-term service. Complicated service conditions lead to a worsening of steel properties a reduction of serviceability of the whole object therefore a risk of its premature failure rises. Aware of the importance of the existing problem the aim of this study is the analysis of various mechanical properties of steels after their long-term operation on gas pipelines and detecting and evaluating fractographic signs of this degradation.<br/>Mechanical properties of operated pipe steels characterizing their brittle fracture resistance were significantly decreased. Delamination areas as one of a feature of brittle fracture were identified on the fracture surfaces of specimens after SSRT of the operated steels in corrosive environment. Fracture was initiated from the outer surface of the specimens along the boundaries of ferrite and pearlite grains with significant secondary cracking.<br/>The obvious texture in the steels affects noticeably the results of the impact tests. Higher KCV values for the specimens cut in the longitudinal direction relative to the pipe axis comparing with the specimens of transversal orientation were obtained. This was explained by different length of narrow pearlite strips alternated by wide ferrite bands and interrupted by individual ferrite grains depending on the orientation of the specimen fracture surface relative to the pipe axis. Thus a proper direction of specimen cutting to achieve the maximum sensitivity of KCV parameter to operational degradation of steels is discussed. The effect of specimen orientation on the results of the Charpy testing becomes much more pronounced with steel operation. Defects accumulated in steels during their service are preferentially oriented in the pipe axial direction along the boundaries between ferrite and pearlite strips. Analyzing the fracture surfaces of the Charpy specimens after their impact testing certain signs of embrittlement were found for long term operated steels in the form of delaminations varying in size and shape and some cleavage fragments. Furthermore their percentage of total fracture surface (generally formed by dimples) correlates well with a drop in the impact toughness. The established relationship could be the basis for the introduction of fractographic criteria of the steel serviceability.

Automotive proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have finally reached a state of technological readiness where several major automotive companies are commercially leasing and selling fuel cell electric vehicles including Toyota Honda and Hyundai. These now claim vehicle speed and acceleration refueling time driving range and durability that rival conventional internal combustion engines and in most cases outperform battery electric vehicles. The residual challenges and areas of improvement which remain for PEMFCs are performance at high current density durability and cost. These are expected to be resolved over the coming decade while hydrogen infrastructure needs to become widely available. Here we briefly discuss the status of automotive PEMFCs misconceptions about the barriers that platinum usage creates and the remaining hurdles for the technology to become broadly accepted and implemented.

Renewable energy is considered the one of the most promising solutions to meet sustainable development goals in terms of climate change mitigation. Today we face the problem of further scaling up renewable energy infrastructure which requires the creation of reliable energy storages environmentally friendly carriers like hydrogen and competitive international markets. These issues provoke the involvement of resource-based countries in the energy transition which is questionable in terms of economic efficiency compared to conventional hydrocarbon resources. To shed a light on the possible efficiency of green hydrogen production in such countries this study is aimed at: (1) comparing key Russian trends of green hydrogen development with global trends (2) presenting strategic scenarios for the Russian energy sector development (3) presenting a case study of Russian hydrogen energy project «Dyakov Ust-Srednekanskaya HPP» in Magadan region. We argue that without significant changes in strategic planning and without focus on sustainable solutions support the further development of Russian power industry will be halted in a conservative scenario with the limited presence of innovative solutions in renewable energy industries. Our case study showed that despite the closeness to Japan hydrogen market economic efficiency is on the edge of zero with payback period around 17 years. The decrease in project capacity below 543.6 MW will immediately lead to a negative NPV. The key reason for that is the low average market price of hydrogen ($14/kg) which is only a bit higher than its production cost ($12.5/kg) while transportation requires about $0.96/kg more. Despite the discouraging results it should be taken into account that such strategic projects are at the edge of energy development. We see them as an opportunity to lead transnational energy trade of green hydrogen which could be competitive in the medium term especially with state support.

Two electrolysis technologies fed with renewable energy sources are promising for the production of CO₂-free hydrogen and enabling the transition to a hydrogen society: Alkaline Electrolyte (AE) and Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM). However limited information exists on the potential environmental impacts of these promising sustainable innovations when operating on a large-scale. To fill this gap the performance of AE and PEM systems is compared using ex-ante Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) technology analysis and exploratory scenarios for which a refined methodology has been developed to study the effects of implementing large-scale sustainable hydrogen production systems. Ex-ante LCA allows modelling the environmental impacts of hydrogen production exploratory scenario analysis allows modelling possible upscaling effects at potential future states of hydrogen production and use in vehicles in the Netherlands in 2050. A bridging tool for mapping the technological field has been created enabling the combination of quantitative LCAs with qualitative scenarios. This tool also enables diversity for exploring multiple sets of visions. The main results from the paper show with an exception for the “ozone depletion” impact category (1) that large-scale AE and PEM systems have similar environmental impacts with variations lower than 7% in all impact categories (2) that the contribution of the electrolyser is limited to 10% of all impact categories results and (3) that the origin of the electricity is the largest contributor to the environmental impact contributing to more than 90% in all impact categories even when renewable energy sources are used. It is concluded that the methodology was applied successfully and provides a solid basis for an ex-ante assessment framework that can be applied to emerging technological systems.

The information in this report covers the period January 2019 – December 2019. The technology and market module of the FCHO presents a range of statistical data as an indicator of the health of the sector and the progress in market development over time. This includes statistical information on the size of the global fuel cell market including number and capacity of fuel cell systems shipped in a calendar year. For this first edition data to the end of 2019 is presented where possible alongside analysis of key sector developments. Fuel cell system shipments for each calendar year are presented both as numbers of units and total system megawatts. The data are further divided and subdivided by: • Application: Total system shipments are divided into Transport Stationary and Portable applications • Fuel cell type: Numbers are provided for each of the different fuel cell chemistry types • Region of integration: Region where the final manufacturer – usually the system integrator – integrates the fuel cell into the final product • Region of deployment: Region where the final product was shipped to for deployment The data is sourced directly from industry players as well as other relevant sources including press releases associations and other industry bodies.

Hybrid photovoltaic–regenerative hydrogen fuel cell (PV-RHFC) microgrid systems are considered to have a high future potential in the effort to increase the renewable energy share in the form of solar PV technology with hydrogen generation storage and reutilization. The current study provides a comprehensive review of the recent research progress of hybrid PV-RHFC microgrid systems to extract conclusions on their characteristics and future prospects. The different components that can be integrated (PV modules electrolyzer and fuel cell stacks energy storage units power electronics and controllers) are analyzed in terms of available technology options. The main modeling and optimization methods and control strategies are discussed. Additionally various application options are provided which differentiate in terms of scale purpose and further integration with other power generating and energy storage technologies. Finally critical analysis and discussion of hybrid PV-RHFC microgrid systems were conducted based on their current status. Overall the commercialization of hybrid PV-RHFC microgrid systems requires a significant drop in the RHFC subsystem capital cost. In addition it will be necessary to produce complete hybrid PV-RHFC microgrid systems with integrated energy management control capabilities to avoid operational issues and ensure flexibility and reliability of the energy flow in relation to supply storage and demand.

Achieving climate-neutrality requires considerable investment in energy storage systems (ESS) to integrate variable renewable energy sources into the grid. However investments into ESS are often unprofitable in particular for grid-scale battery storage and green hydrogen technologies prompting many actors to call for policy intervention. This study investigates investor-specific risk-return preferences for ESS investment and derives policy recommendations. Insights are drawn from 1605 experimental investment-related decisions obtained from 42 high-level institutional investors and utility representatives. Results reveal that both investor groups view revenue stacking as key to making ESS investment viable. While the expected return on investment is the most important project characteristic risk-return preferences for other features diverge between groups. Institutional investors appear more open to exploring new technological ventures (20% of utility respondents would not consider making investments into solar photovoltaic-hydrogen) whereas utilities seem to prefer greenfield projects (23% of surveyed institutional investors rejected such projects). Interestingly both groups show strong aversion towards energy market price risk. Institutional investors require a premium of 6.87 percentage points and utilities 5.54 percentage points for moving from a position of fully hedged against market price risk to a scenario where only 20% of revenue is fixed underlining the need for policy support.

In this present investigation a packed-filter bioreactor was employed to produce hydrogen utilizing an expired soft drink as a substrate. The effects of feeding substrate concentrations ranging from 19.51 10.19 5.34 3.48 to 2.51 g total sugar/L were examined and the position of the packed filter installed in the bioreactor at dimensionless heights (h/H) of 1/4 2/4 3/4 and 4/4 was studied. The results revealed that with a substrate concentration of 20 g total sugar/L and a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 1 h a packed filter placed at the half-height position of the bioreactor (h/H 2/4) has the optimal hydrogen production rate hydrogen yield and average biomass concentration in the bioreactor resulting in 55.70 ± 2.42 L/L/d 0.90 ± 0.06 mol H₂/mol hexose and 17.86 ± 1.09 g VSS/L. When feeding substrate concentrations varied from 20 10 to 5 g total sugar/L with the packed-filter position at h/H 2/4 Clostridium sp. Clostridium tyrobutyricum and Bifidobacterium crudilactis were the predominant bacteria community. Finally it was discovered that the packed-filter bioreactor can produce stable hydrogen in high-strength organic effluent.

Energy-related GHG emissions mainly from fossil fuels combustion account for around 70% of total emissions. Those emissions are the target of the recent sustainability policies. Indeed renewables exploitation is considered widely the weapon to deal with this challenge thanks to their carbon neutrality. But the biggest drawback is represented by the mismatching between their production and users consumption. The storage would be a possible solution but its viability consists of economic sustainability and energy process efficiency as well. The cutting edge technologies of batteries have not still solved these issues at the same time. So a paradigm shift towards the identification of an energy carrier as storage option the so called Power-to-Gas could be the viable solution. From viability to feasibility a mandatory step is required: the opportunity to integrate the new solution in the proven infrastructures system. Thus the recent studies on Hydrogen (H2) enrichment in Natural Gas demonstrating a lower environmental impact and an increase in energy performance are the base to build the hydrogen transition in the urban environment. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the environmental benefits at building and district scale.

Hydrogen energy is one of the most suitable green substitutes for harmful fossil fuels and has been investigated widely. This review extensively compiles and compares various methodologies used in the production storage and usage of hydrogen. Sonochemistry is an emerging synthesis process and intensification technique adapted for the synthesis of novel materials. It manifests acoustic cavitation phenomena caused by ultrasound where higher rates of reactions occur locally. The review discusses the effectiveness of sonochemical routes in developing fuel cell catalysts fuel refining biofuel production chemical processes for hydrogen production and the physical chemical and electrochemical hydrogen storage techniques. The operational parameters and environmental conditions used during ultrasonication also influence the production rates which have been elucidated in detail. Hence this review's major focus addresses sonochemical methods that can contribute to the technical challenges involved in hydrogen usage for energy.

The search for fossil fuels substitutes forces the use of new propulsion technologies applied to means of transportation. Already widespread hybrid vehicles are beginning to share the market with hydrogen-powered propulsion systems. These systems are fuel cells or internal combustion engines powered by hydrogen fuel. In this context road tests of a hydrogen fuel cell drive were conducted under typical traffic conditions according to the requirements of the RDE test. As a result of the carried-out work energy flow conditions were presented for three driving phases (urban rural and motorway). The different contributions to the vehicle propulsion of the hydrogen system and the electric system in each phase of the driving route are indicated. The characteristic interaction of power train components during varying driving conditions was presented. A wide variation in the contribution of the fuel cell and the battery to the vehicle’s propulsion was identified. In urban conditions the share of the fuel cell in the vehicle’s propulsion is more than three times that contributed by the battery suburban—7 times highway—28 times. In the entire test the ratio of FC/BATT use was more than seven while the energy consumption was more than 22 kWh/100 km. The amounts of battery energy used and recovered were found to be very close to each other under RDE test conditions.

The carbide characteristics of 2.25Cr1Mo0.25V steel have an extremely important influence on the mechanical properties of welding joints. In addition hydrogen resistance behavior is crucial for steel applied in hydrogenation reactors. The carbide morphology was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the carbide microstructure was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Tensile and impact tests were carried out and the influence of carbides on properties was studied. A hydrogen diffusion test was carried out and the hydrogen brittleness resistance of welding metal and base metal was studied by tensile testing of hydrogenated samples to evaluate the influence of hydrogen on the mechanical properties. The research results show that the strength of the welding metal was slightly higher and the Charpy impact value was significantly lower compared to the base metal. The hydrogen embrittlement resistance of the welding metal was stronger than that of the base metal. The presence of more carbides and inclusions was the main cause of the decreased impact property and hydrogen brittleness resistance of the welding metal. These conclusions have certain reference value for designing and manufacturing hydrogenation reactors. View Full-Text

Decarbonisation should be very much on the radar of new LNG projects currently taking FID commissioning around 2024-25 and planning to operate up to 2050. The LNG community needs to replace an `advocacy’ message – based on the generality of emissions from combustion of natural gas being lower than from other fossil fuels – with certified data on carbon and methane emissions from specific elements of the value chain for individual projects. As carbon reduction targets tighten over the coming decade LNG cargoes which do not have value chain emissions certified by accredited authorities or which fail to meet defined emission levels run the risk of progressively being deemed to have a lower commercial value and eventually being excluded from jurisdictions with the strictest standards. There will be no place in this process for confidentiality; nothing less than complete transparency of data and methodologies will be acceptable.<br/>In relation to affordability prospects for new projects look much better than they did three years ago. Cost estimates for most new projects suggest that they will be able to deliver profitably to most established and anticipated import markets at or below the wholesale prices prevailing in those markets over the past decade although affordability in south Asian countries may be challenging. But new projects need to factor in costs related to future decarbonisation requirements in both exporting and importing countries. To the extent that LNG suppliers can meet standards through relatively low-cost offsets – forest projects low-cost biogas and biomethane – this may not greatly impact their commercial viability. However any requirement to transform methane into hydrogen with CCS in either the exporting or importing country would substantially impact project economics and the affordability of LNG relative to other energy choices.