Applications & Pathways
What is the Energy Balance of Electrofuels Produced Through Power-to-fuel Integration with Biogas Facilities?
Nov 2021
Publication
The need to reduce the climate impact of the transport sector has led to an increasing interest in the utilisation of alternative fuels. Producing advanced fuels through the integration of anaerobic digestion and power-to-fuel technologies may offer a solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from difficult to decarbonise modes of transport such as heavy goods vehicles shipping and commercial aviation while also offering wider system benefits. This paper investigates the energy balance of power-to-fuel (power-to-methane power-to-methanol power-to-Fischer-Tropsch fuels) production integrated with a biogas facility co-digesting grass silage and dairy slurry. Through the integration of power-to-methane with anaerobic digestion an increase in system gross energy of 62.6% was found. Power-to-methanol integration with the biogas system increased the gross energy by 50% while power-to-Fischer-Tropsch fuels increased the gross energy yield by 32%. The parasitic energy demand for hydrogen production was highlighted as the most significant factor for integrated biogas and power-to-fuel facilities. Consuming electricity that would otherwise have been curtailed and optimising the anaerobic digestion process were identified as key to improving the energetic efficiency of all system configurations. However the broad cross-sectoral benefits of the overarching cascading circular economy system such as providing electrical grid stability and utilising waste resources must also be considered for a comprehensive perspective on the integration of anaerobic digestion and power-to-fuel.
Achieving Carbon-neutral Iron and Steelmaking in Europe Through the Deployment of Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage
Jan 2019
Publication
The 30 integrated steel plants operating in the European Union (EU) are among the largest single-point CO2 emitters in the region. The deployment of bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (bio-CCS) could significantly reduce their emission intensities. In detail the results demonstrate that CO2 emission reduction targets of up to 20% can be met entirely by biomass deployment. A slow CCS technology introduction on top of biomass deployment is expected as the requirement for emission reduction increases further. Bio-CCS could then be a key technology particularly in terms of meeting targets above 50% with CO2 avoidance costs ranging between €60 and €100 tCO2−1 at full-scale deployment. The future of bio-CCS and its utilisation on a larger scale would therefore only be viable if such CO2 avoidance cost were to become economically appealing. Small and medium plants in particular would economically benefit from sharing CO2 pipeline networks. CO2 transport however makes a relatively small contribution to the total CO2 avoidance cost. In the future the role of bio-CCS in the European iron and steelmaking industry will also be influenced by non-economic conditions such as regulations public acceptance realistic CO2 storage capacity and the progress of other mitigation technologies.
Assessment and Recommendations for a Fossil Free Future for Track Work Machinery
Oct 2021
Publication
Current railway track work machinery is mainly operated with diesel fuel. As a result track maintenance of Austrian Federal Railways (OeBB) amounts to nearly 9000 t CO2 equivalent per year according to calculations from Graz University of Technology. OeBB’s total length of railway lines only accounts for 0.56% of the world’s length of lines. This indicates huge potential for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions considering the need for track maintenance worldwide. Environmental concerns have led to the introduction of alternative drives in the transport sector. Until now R&D (Research & Development) of alternative propulsion technologies for track work machinery has been widely neglected. This paper examines the possibility of achieving zero direct emissions during maintenance and construction work in railways by switching to alternative drives. The goal is to analyze alternative propulsion solutions arising from the transport sector and to assess their applicability to track work machinery. Research results together with a calculation tool show that available battery technology is recommendable for energy demands lower than 300 kWh per construction shift. Hydrogen fuel cell technology is an alternative for energy demands higher than 800 kWh. For machinery with energy requirements in between enhancements in battery technology are necessary and desirable for the coming years.
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: Greening the Maritime Transport Sector
Nov 2021
Publication
We have been talking about the difficulties of decarbonizing the maritime sector since the beginning of the Everything About Hydrogen podcast. For this episode we finally bring on the experts who are looking to make the changes in maritime and marine operations a reality for a zero-carbon shipping future. The EAH Team sits down with Tomas Tronstad Head of Shipping and Technology for the New Energy Division at Wilhelmsen Group. Founded in Norway in 1861 Wilhelmsen is now a comprehensive global maritime group providing essential products and services to the merchant fleet along with supplying crew and technical management to the largest and most complex vessels ever to sail. Committed to shaping the maritime industry the company also seeks to develop new opportunities and collaborations in renewables zero-emission shipping and marine digitalization. Tomas is helping Wilhelmsen achieve its decarbonization ambitions and we are delighted to share our conversation with him with our listerners!
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
Life Cycle Environmental and Cost Comparison of Current and Future Passenger Cars under Different Energy Scenarios
Apr 2020
Publication
In this analysis life cycle environmental burdens and total costs of ownership (TCO) of current (2017) and future (2040) passenger cars with different powertrain configurations are compared. For all vehicle configurations probability distributions are defined for all performance parameters. Using these a Monte Carlo based global sensitivity analysis is performed to determine the input parameters that contribute most to overall variability of results. To capture the systematic effects of the energy transition future electricity scenarios are deeply integrated into the ecoinvent life cycle assessment background database. With this integration not only the way how future electric vehicles are charged is captured but also how future vehicles and batteries are produced. If electricity has a life cycle carbon content similar to or better than a modern natural gas combined cycle powerplant full powertrain electrification makes sense from a climate point of view and in many cases also provides reductions in TCO. In general vehicles with smaller batteries and longer lifetime distances have the best cost and climate performance. If a very large driving range is required or clean electricity is not available hybrid powertrain and compressed natural gas vehicles are good options in terms of both costs and climate change impacts. Alternative powertrains containing large batteries or fuel cells are the most sensitive to changes in the future electricity system as their life cycles are more electricity intensive. The benefits of these alternative drivetrains are strongly linked to the success of the energy transition: the more the electricity sector is decarbonized the greater the benefit of electrifying passenger vehicles.
A Review of Synthetic Fuels for Passenger Vehicles
May 2019
Publication
Synthetic fuels produced with renewable surplus electricity depict an interesting solution for the decarbonization of mobility and transportation applications which are not suited for electrification. With the objective to compare various synthetic fuels an analysis of all the energy conversion steps is conducted from the electricity source i.e. wind- solar- or hydro-power to the final application i.e. a vehicle driving a certain number of miles. The investigated fuels are hydrogen methane methanol dimethyl ether and Diesel. While their production process is analyzed based on literature the usage of these fuels is analyzed based on chassis dynanometer measurement data of various EURO-6b passenger vehicles. Conventional and hybrid power-trains as well as various carbon dioxide sources are investigated in two scenarios. The first reference scenario considers market-ready technology only while the second future scenario considers technology which is currently being developed in industry and assumed to be market-ready in near future. With the results derived in this study and with consideration of boundary conditions i.e. availability of infrastructure storage technology of gaseous fuels energy density requirements etc. the most energy efficient of the corresponding suitable synthetic fuels can be chosen.
Transportation in a 100% Renewable Energy System
Jan 2018
Publication
A 100% renewable economy would give a lasting solution to the challenges raised by climate change energy security sustainability and pollution. The conversion of the present transport system appears to be one of the most difficult aspects of such renewable transition. This study reviews the technologies and systems that are being proposed or proven as alternative to fossil-fuel based transportation and their prospects for their entry into the post-carbon era from both technological and energetic viewpoints. The energetic cost of the transition from the current transportation system into global 100% renewable transportation is estimated as well as the electrical energy required for the operation of the new renewable transportation sector. A 100% renewable transport providing the same service as global transport in 2014 would demand about 18% less energy. The main reduction is expected in road transport (69%) but the shipping and air sectors would notably increase their consumptions: 163% and 149% respectively. The analysis concludes that a 100% renewable transportation is feasible but not necessarily compatible with indefinite increase of resources consumption. The major material and energy limitations and obstacles of each transport sector for this transition are shown.
A Review of Fuel Cell Systems for Maritime Applications
Jul 2016
Publication
Progressing limits on pollutant emissions oblige ship owners to reduce the environmental impact of their operations. Fuel cells may provide a suitable solution since they are fuel efficient while they emit few hazardous compounds. Various choices can be made with regard to the type of fuel cell system and logistic fuel and it is unclear which have the best prospects for maritime application. An overview of fuel cell types and fuel processing equipment is presented and maritime fuel cell application is reviewed with regard to efficiency gravimetric and volumetric density dynamic behaviour environmental impact safety and economics. It is shown that low temperature fuel cells using liquefied hydrogen provide a compact solution for ships with a refuelling interval up to a tens of hours but may result in total system sizes up to five times larger than high temperature fuel cells and more energy dense fuels for vessels with longer mission requirements. The expanding infrastructure of liquefied natural gas and development state of natural gas-fuelled fuel cell systems can facilitate the introduction of gaseous fuels and fuel cells on ships. Fuel cell combined cycles hybridisation with auxiliary electricity storage systems and redundancy improvements are identified as topics for further study
Current Status of Automotive Fuel Cells for Sustainable Transport
May 2019
Publication
Automotive proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have finally reached a state of technological readiness where several major automotive companies are commercially leasing and selling fuel cell electric vehicles including Toyota Honda and Hyundai. These now claim vehicle speed and acceleration refueling time driving range and durability that rival conventional internal combustion engines and in most cases outperform battery electric vehicles. The residual challenges and areas of improvement which remain for PEMFCs are performance at high current density durability and cost. These are expected to be resolved over the coming decade while hydrogen infrastructure needs to become widely available. Here we briefly discuss the status of automotive PEMFCs misconceptions about the barriers that platinum usage creates and the remaining hurdles for the technology to become broadly accepted and implemented.
Modelling and Analyzing the Impact of Hydrogen Enriched Natural Gas on Domestic Gas Boilers in a Decarbonization Perspective
Aug 2020
Publication
Decarbonization of energy economy is nowadays a topical theme and several pathways are under discussion. Gaseous fuels have a fundamental role for this transition and the production of low carbon-impact fuels is necessary to deal with this challenge. The generation of renewable hydrogen is a trusted solution since this energy vector can be promptly produced from electricity and injected into the existing natural gas infrastructure granting storage capacity and easy transportation. This scenario will lead in the near future to hydrogen enrichment of natural gas whose impact on the infrastructures is being actively studied. The effect on end-user devices such as domestic gas boilers instead is still little analyzed and tested but is fundamental to be assessed. The aim of this research is to generate knowledge on the effect of hydrogen enrichment on the widely used premixed boilers: the investigations include pollutant emissions efficiency flashback and explosion hazard control system and materials selection. A model for calculating several parameters related to combustion of hydrogen enriched natural gas is presented. Guidelines for the design of new components are provided and an insight is given on the maximum hydrogen blending bearable by the current boilers.
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Observatory Technology and Market Report
Sep 2021
Publication
The information in this report covers the period January 2019 – December 2019. The technology and market module of the FCHO presents a range of statistical data as an indicator of the health of the sector and the progress in market development over time. This includes statistical information on the size of the global fuel cell market including number and capacity of fuel cell systems shipped in a calendar year. For this first edition data to the end of 2019 is presented where possible alongside analysis of key sector developments. Fuel cell system shipments for each calendar year are presented both as numbers of units and total system megawatts. The data are further divided and subdivided by: • Application: Total system shipments are divided into Transport Stationary and Portable applications • Fuel cell type: Numbers are provided for each of the different fuel cell chemistry types • Region of integration: Region where the final manufacturer – usually the system integrator – integrates the fuel cell into the final product • Region of deployment: Region where the final product was shipped to for deployment The data is sourced directly from industry players as well as other relevant sources including press releases associations and other industry bodies.
Deployment of Fuel Cell Vehicles and Hydrogen Refueling Station Infrastructure: A Global Overview and Perspectives
Jul 2022
Publication
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles can complement other electric vehicle technologies as a zeroemission technology and contribute to global efforts to achieve the emission reduction targets. This article spotlights the current deployment status of fuel cells in road transport. For this purpose data collection was performed by the Advanced Fuel Cells Technology Collaboration Programme. Moreover the available incentives for purchasing a fuel cell vehicle in different countries were reviewed and future perspectives summarized. Based on the collected information the development trends in the last five years were analyzed and possible further trends that could see the realization of the defined goals derived. The number of registered vehicles was estimated to be 51437 units with South Korea leading the market with 90% of the vehicles being concentrated in four countries. A total of 729 hydrogen refueling stations were in operation with Japan having the highest number of these. The analysis results clearly indicate a very positive development trend for fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen refueling stations in 2021 with the highest number of new vehicles and stations in a single year paralleling the year’s overall economic recovery. Yet a more ambitious ramp-up in the coming years is required to achieve the set targets.
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: High-temperature Fuel Cells at High Altitudes
Jun 2021
Publication
HyPoint led by its CEO and co-founder Alex Ivanenko is at the cutting edge of the industry's efforts to find zero-emissions aircraft propulsion systems that do not sacrifice speed and power in the name of sustainability. HyPoint is a leading producer of high-temperature PEM fuel cells for aviation applications including for logistic drones air taxis electric vertical takeoff and landing vehicles (eVTOLs) and fixed-wing airplanes. On this episode of the EAH podcast the team speaks with Alex about the incredible pace of development and rapid innovation that he and his colleagues are driving in the hydrogen aviation space and how his company is leading the way in a highly complex and competitive race to decarbonize modern air travel.
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
Levelized Cost of Hydrogen for Refueling Stations with Solar PV and Wind in Sweden: On-grid or Off-grid?
Dec 2021
Publication
The European Union expects that hydrogen will play a vital role in future energy systems. Fuel cell electric vehicles currently present a key development path for electrification of the transport sector which requires infrastructure investments of hydrogen refueling stations preferably powered by renewables such as solar and wind energy. The economic feasibility of refueling stations depends on geographical locations. This study introduces a model to identify the key cost components of renewable hydrogen for refueling stations and simulates the performance using solar radiation wind speed and electricity price data in a selection of Swedish cities. The study demonstrates the importance of integrating the electricity grid in green hydrogen production. Wind speed is crucial in reducing the cost whereas solar radiation has less influence. In addition a combination of solar and wind brings better performance in an off-grid scenario. The most encouraging finding is the cost of 35e72 SEK/kg (3.5e7.2 V/kg) which is competitive with reported costs in other EUcountries especially since this cost excludes any government support scheme. The study provides a reference for investors and policy makers foreseeing the industrial landscape for hydrogen energy development.
Hybrid PEM Fuel Cell Power Plants Fuelled by Hydrogen for Improving Sustainability in Shipping: State of the Art and Review on Active Projects
Feb 2023
Publication
The interest in hybrid polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) fuelled by hydrogen in shipping has seen an unprecedented growth in the last years as it could allow zero-emission navigation. However technical safety and regulatory barriers in PEMFC ship design and operation are hampering the use of such systems on a large scale. While several studies analyse these aspects a comprehensive and up-to-date overview on hydrogen PEMFCs for shipping is missing. Starting from the survey of past/ongoing projects on FCs in shipping this paper presents an extensive review on maritime hydrogen PEMFCs outlining the state of the art and future trends for hydrogen storage and bunkering powertrain and regulations. In addition to the need for a clear regulatory framework future studies should investigate the development of an efficient fuel supply chain and bunkering facilities ashore. As for the onboard power system health-conscious energy management low-temperature heat recovery and advancements in fuel processing have emerged as hot research topics.
Fuzzy Logic-based Energy Management System for Grid-connected Residential DC Microgrids with Multi-stack Fuel Cell Systems: A Multi-objective Approach
Aug 2022
Publication
Hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) are considered for use in renewable residential DC microgrids. This architecture is shown as a technically feasible solution to deal with the stochasticity of renewable energy sources however the complexity of its design and management increases inexorably. To address this problem this paper proposes a fuzzy logic-based energy management system (EMS) for use in grid-connected residential DC microgrids with HESS. It is a hydrogen-based HESS composed of batteries and multi-stack fuel cell system. The proposed EMS is based on a multivariable and multistage fuzzy logic controller specially designed to cope with a multi-objective problem whose solution increases the microgrid performance in terms of efficiency operating costs and lifespan of the HESS. The proposed EMS considers the power balance in the microgrid and its prediction the performance and degradation of its subsystems as well as the main electricity grid costs. This article assesses the performance of the developed EMS with respect to three reference EMSs present in the literature: the widely used dual-band hysteresis and two based on multi-objective model predictive control. Simulation results show an increase in the performance of the microgrid from a technical and economic point of view.
Two Generations of Hydrogen Powertrain—An Analysis of the Operational Indicators in Real Driving Conditions (RDC)
Jun 2022
Publication
Hydrogen fuel cells are systems that can be successfully used to partially replace internal combustion propulsion systems. For this reason the article presents an operational analysis of energy flow along with an analysis of individual energy transmission systems. Two generations of the Toyota Mirai vehicle were used for the tests. The operational analyses were carried out on the same route (compliant with RDE test requirements) assessing the system’s operation in three driving sections (urban rural and motorway). Both generations of the drive system with fuel cells are quite different which affects the obtained individual systems operation results as well as the overall energy flow. Research was carried out on the energy flow in the fuel cells FC converter battery and electric motor using a dedicated data acquisition system. The analyses were carried out in relation to the energy of fuel cells battery energy and recovered braking energy. It was found that in the urban drive section of the second-generation system (due to its much larger mass) a slightly higher energy consumption value was obtained (by about 2%). However in the remaining phases of the test consumption was lower (the maximum difference was 18% in the rural phase). Total energy consumption in the research test was 19.64 kWh/100 km for the first-generation system compared to 18.53 kWh/100 km for the second-generation system. Taking into account the increased mass of the second-generation vehicle resulted in significantly greater benefits in the second-generation drive (up to 37% in individual drive sections and about 28% in the entire drive test).
An Improved Fuzzy PID Control Method Considering Hydrogen Fuel Cell Voltage-Output Characteristics for a Hydrogen Vehicle Power System
Sep 2021
Publication
The hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) vehicle is an important clean energy vehicle which has prospects for development. The behavior of the hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) vehicle power system and in particular the proton-exchange membrane fuel cell has been extensively studied as of recent. The development of the dynamic system modeling technology is of paramount importance for HFC vehicle studies; however it is hampered by the separation of the electrochemical properties and dynamic properties. In addition the established model matching the follow-up control method lacks applicability. In attempts to counter these obstructions we proposed an improved fuzzy (Proportional Integral Derivative) PID control method considering HFC voltage-output characteristics. By developing both the electrochemical and dynamic model for HFC vehicle we can realize the coordinated control of HFC and power cell. The simulation results are in good agreement with the experimental results in the two models. The proposed control algorithm has a good control effect in all stages of HFC vehicle operation.
A Parametric Approach for Conceptual Integration and Performance Studies of Liquid Hydrogen Short–Medium Range Aircraft
Jul 2022
Publication
The present paper deals with the investigation at conceptual level of the performance of short–medium-range aircraft with hydrogen propulsion. The attention is focused on the relationship between figures of merit related to transport capability such as passenger capacity and flight range and the parameters which drive the design of liquid hydrogen tanks and their integration with a given aircraft geometry. The reference aircraft chosen for such purpose is a box-wing short–mediumrange airplane the object of study within a previous European research project called PARSIFAL capable of cutting the fuel consumption per passenger-kilometre up to 22%. By adopting a retrofitting approach non-integral pressure vessels are sized to fit into the fuselage of the reference aircraft under the assumption that the main aerodynamic flight mechanic and structural characteristics are not affected. A parametric model is introduced to generate a wide variety of fuselage-tank cross-section layouts from a single tank with the maximum diameter compatible with a catwalk corridor to multiple tanks located in the cargo deck and an assessment workflow is implemented to perform the structural sizing of the tanks and analyse their thermodynamic behaviour during the mission. This latter is simulated with a time-marching approach that couples the fuel request from engines with the thermodynamics of the hydrogen in the tanks which is constantly subject to evaporation and depending on the internal pressure vented-out in gas form. Each model is presented in detail in the paper and results are provided through sensitivity analyses to both the technologic parameters of the tanks and the geometric parameters influencing their integration. The guidelines resulting from the analyses indicate that light materials such as the aluminium alloy AA2219 for tanks’ structures and polystyrene foam for the insulation should be selected. Preferred values are also indicted for the aspect ratios of the vessel components i.e. central tube and endcaps as well as suggestions for the integration layout to be adopted depending on the desired trade-off between passenger capacity as for the case of multiple tanks in the cargo deck and achievable flight ranges as for the single tank in the section.
Recent Progress on the Key Materials and Components for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells in Vehicle Applications
Jul 2016
Publication
Fuel cells are the most clean and efficient power source for vehicles. In particular proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are the most promising candidate for automobile applications due to their rapid start-up and low-temperature operation. Through extensive global research efforts in the latest decade the performance of PEMFCs including energy efficiency volumetric and mass power density and low temperature startup ability have achieved significant breakthroughs. In 2014 fuel cell powered vehicles were introduced into the market by several prominent vehicle companies. However the low durability and high cost of PEMFC systems are still the main obstacles for large-scale industrialization of this technology. The key materials and components used in PEMFCs greatly affect their durability and cost. In this review the technical progress of key materials and components for PEMFCs has been summarized and critically discussed including topics such as the membrane catalyst layer gas diffusion layer and bipolar plate. The development of high-durability processing technologies is also introduced. Finally this review is concluded with personal perspectives on the future research directions of this area.
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