Applications & Pathways
Analysis and Design of Fuel Cell Systems for Aviation
Feb 2018
Publication
In this paper the design of fuel cells for the main energy supply of passenger transportation aircraft is discussed. Using a physical model of a fuel cell general design considerations are derived. Considering different possible design objectives the trade-off between power density and efficiency is discussed. A universal cost–benefit curve is derived to aid the design process. A weight factor wP is introduced which allows incorporating technical (e.g. system mass and efficiency) as well as non-technical design objectives (e.g. operating cost emission goals social acceptance or technology affinity political factors). The optimal fuel cell design is not determined by the characteristics of the fuel cell alone but also by the characteristics of the other system components. The fuel cell needs to be designed in the context of the whole energy system. This is demonstrated by combining the fuel cell model with simple and detailed design models of a liquid hydrogen tank. The presented methodology and models allows assessing the potential of fuel cell systems for mass reduction of future passenger aircraft.
Hydrogen Direct Injection: Optical Investigation of Premixed and Jet-guided Combustion Modes
Mar 2024
Publication
The classical approach to use hydrogen as a fuel for Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs) is premixed combustion. In order to avoid knocking and to limit NOx emissions very lean mixtures are employed thus resulting in a high boost pressure demand or low specific engine power. To overcome these limitations the possibility of a diesellike jet-guided combustion of hydrogen is explored. The approach is to ignite a directly injected hydrogen jet at its periphery by means of a conventional spark discharge followed by a diffusion-controlled combustion while injection remains active. An optically accessible Rapid Compression Expansion Machine (RCEM) is used to investigate ignition and combustion of underexpanded hydrogen jets in air by means of simultaneous Schlieren visualization and OH chemiluminescence. Different injection and ignition timing are investigated resulting in premixed partially premixed and diffusion-controlled (jet-guided) combustion conditions. The possibility of ignition and combustion of the hydrogen jets in diffusion-controlled conditions is investigated for different orientations of the incoming fuel jet with respect to spark location. The combustion tests are analyzed in terms of ignition success rate ignition delay reacting surface and heat release rate and an optimal orientation of the jet is assessed. The present study provides insights for optimizing hydrogen direct injection ignition and combustion for later application in ICEs.
Impact of Hydrogen in the Road Transport Sector for Portugal 2010-2050
Nov 2014
Publication
This paper presents an analysis of the potential economic-wide energy and CO2 emissions implications of hydrogen vehicle penetration into the Portuguese road transport over the time-horizon 2010-2050. The energy and emissions implications are obtained using PATTS (Projections for Alternative Transportation Technologies Simulation) an excel spreadsheet model based on forecast scenarios. Historical data and trends of gasoline versus diesel share fleet scrappadge representative light-duty vehicle technologies life cycle energy and emission factors are used to estimate on a yearly basis the total fleet life cycle energy consumption CO2 emissions and air quality related impact. The macroeconomic effects are assessed with a Computable General Equilibrium model that is solved as a non-linear optimization problem formulated in GAMS software capable of dealing with substitution between labour capital stock electric energy and non-electric energy factors of production. It integrates parameter inputs obtained from PATTS tool where the transportation sector becomes hydrogen driven and a wide hydrogen refuelling infrastructure is deployed. The simulation experiments show that "hydrogen technologies" are likely to become economically viable. Household consumption real GDP and investment increase from baseline. The positive impact upon the economic variables is supplemented by energy costs reductions of just -0.1 to -0.3 percent per annum in both high-price and low-price cases. The economy grows faster in the low-price case where the reductions in energy costs are also more pronounced. CO2 avoided emissions due to hydrogen economy reach a maximum of 2 kton/km in 2050 if the natural gas steam reforming production method is adopted.
Cost-effective Technology Choice in a Decarbonized and Diversified Long-haul Truck Transportation Sector: A U.S. Case Study
Dec 2021
Publication
Achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 will require accelerated efforts that include decarbonizing long-haul truck transportation. In this difficult-to-decarbonize low-margin industry economic transparency on technology options is vital for decision makers seeking to eliminate emissions. Battery electric (BET) and hydrogen fuel cell electric trucks (FCET) can represent emission-free alternatives to diesel-powered trucks (DT). Previous studies focus on cost competitiveness in weight-constrained transportation even though logistics research shows that significant shares of transportation are constrained by volume and analyze cost only for selected technologies hence impeding a differentiated market segmentation of future emission-free trucks. In this study the perspective of a rational investor is taken and it is shown that under current conditions in the U.S. BETs outperform FCETs in various long-haul use cases despite charging times and cargo deficits and will further increase their technological competitiveness to DTs. While future energy and fueling prices are decisive for BET competitiveness the analysis reveals that autonomous driving may change the picture in favor of FCETs.
Proton Exchange Membrane Hydrogen Fuel Cell as the Grid Connected Power Generator
Dec 2020
Publication
In this paper a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is implemented as a grid-connected electrical generator that uses hydrogen gas as fuel and air as an oxidant to produce electricity through electrochemical reactions. Analysis demonstrated that the performance of the PEMFC greatly depends on the rate of fuel supply and air supply pressure. Critical fuel and air supply pressures of the PEMFC are analysed to test its feasibility for the grid connection. Air and fuel supply pressures are varied to observe the effects on the PEMFC characteristics efficiency fuel supply and air consumption over time. The PEMFC model is then implemented into an electrical power system with the aid of power electronics applications. Detailed mathematical modelling of the PEMFC is discussed with justification. The PEMFC functions as an electrical generator that is connected to the local grid through a power converter and a transformer. Modulation of the converter is controlled by means of a proportional-integral controller. The two-axis control methodology is applied to the current control of the system. The output voltage waveform and control actions of the controller on the current and frequency of the proposed system are plotted as well. Simulation results show that the PEMFC performs efficiently under certain air and fuel pressures and it can effectively supply electrical power to the grid.
Health-Conscious Optimization of Long-Term Operation for Hybrid PEMFC Ship Propulsion Systems
Jun 2021
Publication
The need to decarbonize the shipping sector is leading to a growing interest in fuel cell-based propulsion systems. While Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) represent one of the most promising and mature technologies for onboard implementation they are still prone to remarkable degradation. The same problem is also affecting Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) which are usually coupled with PEMFC in hybrid powertrains. By including the combined degradation effects in an optimization strategy the best compromise between costs and PEMFC/LIB lifetime could be determined. However this is still a challenging yet crucial aspect rarely addressed in the literature and rarely yet explored. To fill this gap a health-conscious optimization is here proposed for the long-term minimization of costs and PEMFC/LIB degradation. Results show that a holistic multi-objective optimization allows a 185% increase of PEMFC/LIB lifetime with respect to a fuel-consumption-minimization-only approach. With the progressive ageing of PEMFC/LIB the hybrid propulsion system modifies the energy management strategy to limit the increase of the daily operation cost. Comparing the optimization results at the beginning and the end of the plant lifetime daily operation costs are increased by 73% and hydrogen consumption by 29%. The proposed methodology is believed to be a useful tool able to give insights into the effective costs involved in the long-term operation of this new type of propulsion system.
HydroGenerally - Episode 4: Hydrogen in a Global Maritime Industry: Plain Sailing or a Rough Ride?
May 2022
Publication
In this fourth episode Simon Buckley and Matthew Moss from Innovate UK KTN are exploring the use of hydrogen in the global maritime industry alongside their special guest Chester Lewis Business Development Manager at Ryze Hydrogen.
This podcast can be found on their website
This podcast can be found on their website
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: Taking Hydrogen off the Grid
Jun 2022
Publication
On this episode of Everything About Hydrogen we chat with Andrew Cunningham Founder and Director at GeoPura. GeoPura is enabling the production transport and use of zero-emissions fuels with innovative and commercially viable technology to decarbonise the global economy. As the world transitions away from fossils fuels there is an increasing need for reliable clean electricity. If global power demand continues to grow as expected the electricity grid system will need support from renewable energy sources such as hydrogen and fuel cell power generator. GeoPura seeks to address exactly that kind of need.
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
One-dimensional Numerical Investigation on Multi-cylinder Gasoline Engine Fueled by Micro-emulsions, CNG, and Hydrogen in Dual Fuel Mode
Aug 2022
Publication
This research work is the novel state-of-the-art technology performed on multi-cylinder SI engine fueled compressed natural gas emulsified fuel and hydrogen as dual fuel. This work predicts the overall features of performance combustion and exhaust emissions of individual fuels based on AVL Boost simulation technology. Three types of alternative fuels have been compared and analyzed. The results show that hydrogen produces 20% more brake power than CNG and 25% more power than micro-emulsion fuel at 1500 r/min which further increases the brake power of hydrogen CNG and micro-emulsions in the range of 25% 20% and 15% at higher engine speeds of 2500–4000 r/min respectively. In addition the brake-specific fuel consumption is the lowest for 100% hydrogen followed by CNG 100% and then micro-emulsions at 1500 r/min. At 2500– 5000 r/min there is a significant drop in brake-specific fuel consumption due to a lean mixture at higher engine speeds. The CO HC and NOx emissions significantly improve for hydrogen CNG and micro-emulsion fuel. Hydrogen fuel shows zero CO and HC emissions and is the main objective of this research to produce 0% carbon-based emissions with a slight increase in NOx emissions and CNG shows 30% lower CO emissions than micro-emulsions and 21.5% less hydrocarbon emissions than micro-emulsion fuel at stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
Electric Mobility in Portugal: Current Situation and Forecasts for Fuel Cell Vehicles
Nov 2021
Publication
In recent years the growing concern for air quality has led to the development of sustainable vehicles to replace conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Currently the most widespread technology in Europe and Portugal is that of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) or plug‐in HEV (PHEV) electric cars but hydrogen‐based transport has also shown significant growth in the commercialization of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV) and in the development of new infrastructural schemes. In the current panorama of EV particular attention should be paid to hydrogen technology i.e. FCEVs which is potentially a valid alternative to BEVs and can also be hybrid (FCHEV) and plug‐in hybrid (FCPHEV). Several sources cited show a positive trend of hydrogen in the transport sector identifying a growing trend in the expansion of hydrogen infrastructure although at this time it is still at an early stage of development. At the moment the cost of building the infrastructure is still high but on the basis of medium/long‐term scenarios it is clear that investments in hydrogen refueling stations will be profitable if the number of Fuel Cell vehicles increases. Conversely the Fuel Cell vehicle market is hampered if there is no adequate infrastructure for hydrogen development. The opportunity to use Fuel Cells to store electrical energy is quite fascinating and bypasses some obstacles encountered with BEVs. The advantages are clear since the charging times are reduced compared to charging from an electric charging post and the long‐distance voyage is made easier as the autonomy is much larger i.e. the psycho‐ sociological anxiety is avoided. Therefore the first part of the paper provides an overview of the current state of electric mobility in Portugal and the strategies adopted by the country. This is necessary to have a clear vision of how a new technology is accepted by the population and develops on the territory that is the propensity of citizens to technological change. Subsequently using current data on EV development and comparing information from recent years this work aims to investigate the future prospects of FCEVs in Portugal by adopting a dynamic model called SERA (Scenario Evaluation and Regionalization Analysis) with which it is possible to identify the Portuguese districts and cities where an FC charging infrastructure is expected to be most beneficial. From the results obtained the districts of Lisbon Porto and Aveiro seem to be the most interested in adopting FC technology. This analysis aims to ensure a measured view of the credible development of this market segment.
Analysis of Crash Characteristics of Hydrogen Storage Structure of Hydrogen Powered UAV
Nov 2022
Publication
In the context of green aviation as an internationally recognized solution hydrogen energy is lauded as the “ultimate energy source of the 21st century” with zero emissions at the source. Developed economies with aviation industries such as Europe and the United States have announced hydrogen energy aviation development plans successively. The study and development of high-energy hydrogen fuel cells and hydrogen energy power systems have become some of the future aviation research focal points. As a crucial component of hydrogen energy storage and delivery the design and development of a safe lightweight and efficient hydrogen storage structure have drawn increasing consideration. Using a hydrogen-powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) as the subject of this article the crash characteristics of the UAV’s hydrogen storage structure are investigated in detail. The main research findings are summarized as follows: (1) A series of crash characteristics analyses of the hydrogen storage structure of a hydrogen-powered UAV were conducted and the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) response of the structure under different impact angles internal pressures and impact speeds was obtained and analyzed. (2) When the deformation of the hydrogen storage structure exceeds 50 mm and the strain exceeds 0.8 an initial crack will appear at this part of the hydrogen storage structure. The emergency release valve should respond immediately to release the gas inside the tank to avoid further damage. (3) Impact angle and initial internal pressure are the main factors affecting the formation of initial cracks.
Mobile Nuclear-Hydrogen Synergy in NATO Operations
Nov 2021
Publication
An uninterrupted chain of energy supplies is the core of every activity without exception for the operations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. A robust and efficient energy supply is fundamental for the success of missions and a guarantee of soldier safety. However organizing a battlefield energy supply chain is particularly challenging because the risks and threats are particularly high. Moreover the energy supply chain is expected to be flexible according to mission needs and able to be moved quickly if necessary. In line with ongoing technological changes the growing popularity of hydrogen is undeniable and has been noticed by NATO as well. Hydrogen is characterised by a much higher energy density per unit mass than other fuels which means that hydrogen fuel can increase the range of military vehicles. Consequently hydrogen could eliminate the need for risky refuelling stops during missions as well as the number of fatalities associated with fuel delivery in combat areas. Our research shows that a promising prospect lies in the mobile technologies based on hydrogen in combination with use of the nuclear microreactors. Nuclear microreactors are small enough to be easily transported to their destinations on heavy trucks. Depending on the design nuclear microreactors can produce 1–20 MW of thermal energy that could be used directly as heat or converted to electric power or for non-electric applications such as hydrogen fuel production. The aim of the article is to identify a model of nuclear-hydrogen synergy for use in NATO operations. We identify opportunities and threats related to mobile energy generation with nuclear-hydrogen synergy in NATO operations. The research presented in this paper identifies the best method of producing hydrogen using a nuclear microreactor. A popular and environmentally “clean” solution is electrolysis due to the simplicity of the process. However this is less efficient than chemical processes based on for example the sulphur-iodine cycle. The results of the research presented in this paper show which of the methods and which cycle is the most attractive for the production of hydrogen with the use of mini-reactors. The verification criteria include: the efficiency of the process its complexity and the residues generated as a result of the process (waste)—all taking into account usage for military purposes.
Influence of Hydrogen Production in the CO2 Emissions Reduction of Hydrogen Mettalurgy Transformation in Iron and Steel Industry
Jan 2023
Publication
The transformation of hydrogen metallurgy is a principal means of promoting the iron and steel industry (ISI) in reaching peak and deep emissions reduction. However the environmental impact of different hydrogen production paths on hydrogen metallurgy has not been systemically discussed. To address this gap based on Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning System (LEAP) this paper constructs a bottom-up energy system model that includes hydrogen production iron and steel (IS) production and power generation. By setting three hydrogen production structure development paths namely the baseline scenario business-as-usual (BAU) scenario and clean power (CP) scenario the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions impact of different hydrogen production paths on hydrogen metallurgy is carefully evaluated from the perspective of the whole industry and each IS production process. The results show that under the baseline scenario the hydrogen metallurgy transition will help the CO2 emissions of ISI peak at 2.19 billion tons in 2024 compared to 2.08 billion tons in 2020 and then gradually decrease to 0.78 billion tons in 2050. However different hydrogen production paths will contribute to the reduction or inhibit the reduction. In 2050 the development of electrolysis hydrogen production with renewable electricity will reduce CO2 emissions by an additional 48.76 million tons (under the CP scenario) while the hydrogen production mainly based on coal gasification and methane reforming will increase the additional 50.04 million tons CO2 emissions (under the BAU scenario). Moreover under the hydrogen production structure relying mainly on fossil and industrial by-products the technological transformation of blast furnace ironmaking with hydrogen injections will leak carbon emissions to the upstream energy processing and conversion process. Furthermore except for the 100% scrap based electric arc furnace (EAF) process the IS production process on hydrogen-rich shaft furnace direct reduced iron (hydrogen-rich DRI) have lower CO2 emissions than other processes. Therefore developing hydrogen-rich DRI will help the EAF steelmaking development to efficiently reduce CO2 emissions under scrap constraints.
Estimation of Liquid Hydrogen Fuels in Aviation
Sep 2022
Publication
As the demand for alternative fuels to solve environmental problems increases worldwide due to the greenhouse gas problem this study predicted the demand for liquid hydrogen fuel in aviation to achieve ‘zero‐emission flight’. The liquid hydrogen fuel models of an aircraft and all aviation sectors were produced based on the prediction of aviation fleet growth through the classification of currently operated aircraft. Using these models the required amount of liquid hydrogen fuel and the total cost of liquid hydrogen were also calculated when various environmental regulations were satisfied. As a result it was found to be necessary to convert approximately 66% to 100% of all aircraft from existing aircraft to liquid hydrogen aircraft in 2050 according to regulations. The annual liquid hydrogen cost was 4.7–5.2 times higher in the beginning due to the high production cost but after 2030 it will be maintained at almost the same price and it was found that the cost was rather low compared to jet fuel.
Cost, Footprint, and Reliability Implications of Deploying Hydrogen in Off-grid Electric Vehicle Charging Stations: A GIS-assisted Study for Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Jul 2022
Publication
For the first time we quantify cost footprint and reliability implications of deploying hydrogen-based generation in off-grid electric vehicle charging stations (CS) using an optimization model coupled with a geographic information system (GIS) analysis for the city of Riyadh Saudi Arabia. We also account for the challenges associated with wind energy deployment as a candidate generation technology within city centers. The analysis was restricted to carbon-free technologies: photovoltaics (PV) wind battery and hydrogen fuel-cells. At current prevailing technology costs hydrogen can reduce the required footprint of off-grid CSs by 25% at a small incremental cost increase without impacting the charging reliability. By 2030 however hydrogen will simultaneously provide the footprint and cost advantages. If we allow as little as 5% of the annual load to be unmet the required footprint of the CS decreases by 60%. The levelized cost of energy values for the CS by 2030 can range between 0.13 and 0.20 $/kWh depending on learning-curve assumptions. The footprints calculated are then mapped to five land parcel categories in Riyadh: gas station hospital mall school and university. Incorporating hydrogen in CS design increases the number of parcels that could accommodate CSs by 15e45% via reducing the required PV array (i.e. footprint).
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: Using Hydrogen to Decarbonise Steel Manufacturing
Mar 2022
Publication
Hydrogen could be used in many hard-to-decarbonize sectors. Foremost amongst them is the steel manufacturing industry. On this episode of EAH we speak with Dr. Martin Pei Executive Vice President and CTO of SSAB and the first Chairman of the Board for Hybrit Development AB. SSAB is a global steel company with a leading position in high-strength steels and related services. Together with their partners LKAB and Vattenfall SSAB are making a unique joint effort to change the Swedish iron and steel industry fundamentally. With HYBRIT technology SSAB aims to be the first steel company in the world to bring fossil-free steel to the market already in 2026 and largely eliminate carbon dioxide emissions from the company's own operations as soon as 2030.
The podcast can be found on their website.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Green Hydrogen Production for Oil Refining - Finnish Case
Jan 2023
Publication
This study investigates the production of green hydrogen for use in oil refining as specified in the draft of European union delegated act published in May 2022. The European union plans to set strict requirements of additionality and reporting regarding the criteria of renewable electricity used in hydrogen production. Alkaline electrolyzer proton exchange membrane electrolyzer and solid oxide electrolyzer are evaluated in various scenarios supplied by wind power: power purchase agreement-based scenarios and wind power investment-based scenarios. In power purchase agreement-based scenarios baseload and pay as produced power purchase agreements (with and without electricity storage) are assessed. According to results the use of 600 MW compressed air energy storage could reduce the dependency on the grid by 7% but increase the cost of green hydrogen significantly. Investment-based scenarios produce green hydrogen with a lower operation cost but higher break-even price compared to power purchase agreement-based scenarios. The cheapest green hydrogen can be achieved by alkaline electrolyzer with baseload power purchase agreement. Direct ownership of wind power is outside the operation of oil refining industry thus power purchase agreements contracting is more likely to realize.
Alternative Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines
Aug 2020
Publication
The recent transport electrification trend is pushing governments to limit the future use of Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs). However the rationale for this strong limitation is frequently not sufficiently addressed or justified. The problem does not seem to lie within the engines nor with the combustion by themselves but seemingly rather with the rise in greenhouse gases (GHG) namely CO2 rejected to the atmosphere. However it is frequent that the distinction between fossil CO2 and renewable CO2 production is not made or even between CO2 emissions and pollutant emissions. The present revision paper discusses and introduces different alternative fuels that can be burned in IC Engines and would eliminate or substantially reduce the emission of fossil CO2 into the atmosphere. These may be non-carbon fuels such as hydrogen or ammonia or biofuels such as alcohols ethers or esters including synthetic fuels. There are also other types of fuels that may be used such as those based on turpentine or even glycerin which could maintain ICEs as a valuable option for transportation.
Studies Concerning Electrical Repowering of a Training Airplane Using Hydrogen Fuel Cells
Mar 2024
Publication
The increase in greenhouse gas emissions as well as the risk of fossil fuel depletion has prompted a transition to electric transportation. The European Union aims to substantially reduce pollutant emissions by 2035 through the use of renewable energies. In aviation this transition is particularly challenging mainly due to the weight of onboard equipment. Traditional electric motors with radial magnetic flux have been replaced by axial magnetic flux motors with reduced weight and volume high efficiency power and torque. These motors were initially developed for electric vehicles with in-wheel motors but have been adapted for aviation without modifications. Worldwide there are already companies developing propulsion systems for various aircraft categories using such electric motors. One category of aircraft that could benefit from this electric motor development is traditionally constructed training aircraft with significant remaining flight resource. Electric repowering would allow their continued use for pilot training preparing them for future electrically powered aircraft. This article presents a study on the feasibility of repowering a classic training aircraft with an electric propulsion system. The possibilities of using either a battery or a hybrid source composed of a battery and a fuel cell as an energy source are explored. The goal is to utilize components already in production to eliminate the research phase for specific aircraft components.
Potential for Hydrogen and Power-to-Liquid in a Low-carbon EU Energy System Using Cost Optimization
Oct 2018
Publication
Hydrogen represents a versatile energy carrier with net zero end use emissions. Power-to-Liquid (PtL) includes the combination of hydrogen with CO2 to produce liquid fuels and satisfy mostly transport demand. This study assesses the role of these pathways across scenarios that achieve 80–95% CO2 reduction by 2050 (vs. 1990) using the JRC-EU-TIMES model. The gaps in the literature covered in this study include a broader spatial coverage (EU28+) and hydrogen use in all sectors (beyond transport). The large uncertainty in the possible evolution of the energy system has been tackled with an extensive sensitivity analysis. 15 parameters were varied to produce more than 50 scenarios. Results indicate that parameters with the largest influence are the CO2 target the availability of CO2 underground storage and the biomass potential.
Hydrogen demand increases from 7 mtpa today to 20–120 mtpa (2.4–14.4 EJ/yr) mainly used for PtL (up to 70 mtpa) transport (up to 40 mtpa) and industry (25 mtpa). Only when CO2 storage was not possible due to a political ban or social acceptance issues was electrolysis the main hydrogen production route (90% share) and CO2 use for PtL became attractive. Otherwise hydrogen was produced through gas reforming with CO2 capture and the preferred CO2 sink was underground. Hydrogen and PtL contribute to energy security and independence allowing to reduce energy related import cost from 420 bln€/yr today to 350 or 50 bln€/yr for 95% CO2 reduction with and without CO2 storage. Development of electrolyzers fuel cells and fuel synthesis should continue to ensure these technologies are ready when needed. Results from this study should be complemented with studies with higher spatial and temporal resolution. Scenarios with global trading of hydrogen and potential import to the EU were not included.
Hydrogen demand increases from 7 mtpa today to 20–120 mtpa (2.4–14.4 EJ/yr) mainly used for PtL (up to 70 mtpa) transport (up to 40 mtpa) and industry (25 mtpa). Only when CO2 storage was not possible due to a political ban or social acceptance issues was electrolysis the main hydrogen production route (90% share) and CO2 use for PtL became attractive. Otherwise hydrogen was produced through gas reforming with CO2 capture and the preferred CO2 sink was underground. Hydrogen and PtL contribute to energy security and independence allowing to reduce energy related import cost from 420 bln€/yr today to 350 or 50 bln€/yr for 95% CO2 reduction with and without CO2 storage. Development of electrolyzers fuel cells and fuel synthesis should continue to ensure these technologies are ready when needed. Results from this study should be complemented with studies with higher spatial and temporal resolution. Scenarios with global trading of hydrogen and potential import to the EU were not included.
No more items...