Applications & Pathways

Model predictive control (MPC) requires high accuracy of the model. However the actual power system has complex dynamic characteristics. There must be unmodeled dynamics in the system modeling process which makes it difficult for MPC to perform the function of optimal control. ESO has the ability to observe and suppress errors combining the both can solve this problem. Thus this paper proposes a coordinated control strategy of hydrogen-energy storage system based on disturbance-rejection model predictive controller. Firstly this paper constructs the state-space model of the system and improves MPC. By connecting ESO and MPC in series this paper designs a matched disturbance-rejection model predictive controller and analyzes the robustness of the research system. Finally this paper verifies the effectiveness and feasibility of the disturbance-rejection model predictive controller under various working conditions. Compared with the method using only MPC the dynamic response time of the system frequency regulation under the proposed strategy in this paper is increased by about 29.9 % and the frequency drop rate is slowed down by 13.5 %. In addition under the AGC command and continuous load disturbance working conditions the maximum frequency deviation of the system under the proposed strategy is reduced by about 54.01 % and 48.96 %. The results clearly show that the proposed strategy in this paper significantly improves the dynamic response ability of the system and reduces the frequency fluctuation of the system after disturbance.

The spark-ignited (SI) hydrogen combustion engine has the potential to noticeably reduce greenhouse gas emissions from passenger cars. To prevent nitrogen oxide emissions and to increase fuel efficiency and power output complex air paths and operating strategies are utilized. This makes the engine control problem more complex challenging the conventional engine calibration process. This work combines and extends the state-of-the-art in real-time combustion engine modeling and optimal control presenting a novel control concept for the efficient operation of a hydrogen combustion engine. The extensive experimental validation with a 1.5 l three-cylinder hydrogen SI engine and a dynamically operated engine test bench with emission and in-cylinder pressure measurements provides a comprehensible comparison to conventional engine control. The results demonstrate that the proposed optimal control decreased the load tracking errors by a factor of up to 2.8 and increased the engine efficiency during lean operation by up to 10 percent while decreasing the calibration effort compared to conventional engine control.

The use of chemical hydrogen carriers such as ammonia (NH3) methanol (MeOH) dimethyl ether (DME) and liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC) is considered as a potential option for hydrogen imports. Following import the carriers are either converted centrally into hydrogen or transported further to the point of use. This study evaluates various domestic transport options – truck rail inland waterway and pipeline – as unimodal or intermodal transport for hydrogen and chemical hydrogen carriers. Based on this the potential of transport and decentralized integration of carriers for various locations is assessed. A cost comparison is used to determine the maximum specific costs that a decentralized conversion plant can incur while remaining competitive with a centralized conversion plant in the port. The analysis shows that the specific costs of decentralized conversion plants at numerous locations can be significantly higher than those of centralized plants indicating considerable cost-saving potential.

The adoption of H2 fuel in gas turbine systems is steadily increasing as part of the transition toward cleaner energy sources. However its unique combustion characteristics pose significant challenges in managing combustion instability. This study examines the acoustic behavior of H2-CH4 mixed-fuel combustion instability using a model gas turbine combustor. To simulate instability situation of mixed fuel multi-mode acoustic excitation experiments are performed with the fixed fundamental forcing at the combustor's resonance frequency (∼160 Hz) together with additional variable forcing at 250 Hz and 1000 Hz which are the representative instability modes of CH4 and H2 flames respectively. In some cases highly risky signal amplification is observed. For example when the amplitude ratios of forcing at 160 250 and 1000 Hz are 1:9:0 the response reaches up to 106.15 kPa at the other frequency of 1750 Hz. This phenomenon is confirmed by attribution of the interaction of the overlapping mode frequencies and the node and antinode position of standing wave with no such amplification observed at other experimental conditions. Consequently the optimal sensor location is expected to vary with changes in the co-firing ratio and conditions and identifying these optimal positions is essential for reliable monitoring and successful implementation of H2 co-firing technology.

Towards low-carbon buildings with resilient energy performance renewable energy resources and flexible energy assets play key roles in managing the electrical and heat demands. Hydrogen-based systems represent a promising solution through renewable hydrogen production and long-term storage. This paper systematically reviews 35 peer-reviewed studies (1990–2024) on hydrogen integration in buildings focusing on demand-side management (DSM) optimization methods and system performance. The review covers the environmental impacts feasibility and economic viability of integrating different hydrogen systems for supplying energy. Across critical reviews case studies hydrogen supplementary systems achieved CO2 reductions between 12 % and 87 % operational cost decreases of up to 40 % and efficiency gains exceeding 80 %. Payback periods varied widely between 9 and 20 years demonstrating high investment costs. Key gaps include limited field validation economic feasibility and public acceptance of hydrogen homes. One key area for future investigation is optimizing energy flows across production storage and demand particularly in Vehicle-to-Building (V2B) applications. This review paper highlights opportunities especially the potential of hydrogen system in decarbonization of buildings by long-term energy storage barriers and policy needs for implementing hydrogen technologies in grid-connected and remote areas to enhance sustainable and resilient buildings.

Hydrogen is increasingly recognized as a key energy vector for achieving deep decarbonization across urban and industrial sectors. Supporting global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) it is essential to understand the multi-sectoral role of the hydrogen value chain spanning production storage and end-use applications with particular emphasis on smart city systems and industrial processes. Green hydrogen production technologies including alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis anion exchange membrane (AEM) electrolysis and solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs) are evaluated in terms of efficiency scalability and integration potential. Storage pathways are examined across physical storage (compressed gas cryo-compressed and liquid hydrogen) material-based storage (solid-state absorption in metal hydrides and chemical carriers such as LOHCs and ammonia) and geological storage (salt caverns depleted gas reservoirs and deep saline aquifers) highlighting their suitability for urban and industrial contexts. In the smart city domain hydrogen is analyzed as an enabler of zero-emission transportation low-carbon residential and commercial heating and renewable-integrated smart grids with long-duration storage capabilities. System-level studies demonstrate that coordinated integration of these applications can deliver higher overall energy efficiency deeper reductions in life-cycle GHG emissions and improved resilience of urban energy systems compared with sector-specific approaches. Policy frameworks safety standards and digitalization strategies are reviewed to illustrate how hydrogen infrastructure can be embedded into interconnected urban energy systems. Furthermore industrial applications focus on hydrogen’s potential to decarbonize energy-intensive processes and enable sector coupling between electricity heat and manufacturing. The environmental implications of hydrogen deployment are also considered including resource efficiency life-cycle emissions and ecosystem impacts. In contrast to reviews addressing isolated aspects of hydrogen technologies this study synthesizes technological infrastructural and policy dimensions integrating insights from over 400 studies to highlight the multifaceted role of hydrogen in sustainable urban development and industrial decarbonization and the added benefits achievable through coordinated cross-sector deployment strategies.

Hydrogen recirculation is essential for maintaining fuel efficiency and durability in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) systems particularly in automotive range extender applications. This study presents the design simulation and experimental validation of a dry all-metal scroll pump developed for hydrogen recirculation in a 5 kW PEMFC system. The pump operates without oil or polymer seals offering long-term compatibility with dry hydrogen. Two prototypes were fabricated: SP1 incorporating PTFE-bronze tip seals and SP2 a fully metallic seal-free design. A fully deterministic one-dimensional (1D) model was developed to predict thermodynamic performance including leakage and heat transfer effects and validated against experimental results. SP1 achieved higher flow rates due to reduced axial leakage but experienced elevated friction and temperature. In contrast SP2 provided improved thermal stability and lower friction with slightly reduced flow performance. The pump demonstrated a maximum flow rate of 50 l/min and an isentropic efficiency of 82.2 % at 2.5 bara outlet pressure. Simulated performance showed strong agreement with experimental results with deviations under 5 %. The findings highlight the critical role of thermal management and manufacturing tolerances in dry scroll pump design. The seal-free liquid-cooled scroll architecture presents a promising solution for compact oil-free hydrogen recirculation in low-power fuel cell systems.

The growing demand for low-emission urban freight has intensified efficiency challenges in lastmile delivery especially in dense city centres. This study assesses hydrogen-powered cargo bikes as a scalable zero-emission alternative to fossil fuel vans and battery-electric cargo bikes. Using real-world logistics data from Rome we apply simulation models including Monte Carlo cost analysis Artificial Intelligence driven routing K-means station placement and fleet scaling. Results show hydrogen bikes deliver 15% more parcels daily than electric counterparts reduce refuelling detours by 31.4% and lower per-trip fuel use by 32%. They can cut up to 120 metric tons of CO2 annually per 100-bike fleet. While battery-electric cargo bikes remain optimal for short trips hydrogen bikes offer superior uptime range and rapid refuelling—ideal for highfrequency mid-distance logistics. Under supportive pricing and infrastructure hydrogen cargo bikes represent a resilient and sustainable solution for decarbonizing last-mile delivery in city areas.

The escalating global demand for electricity coupled with environmental concerns and economic considerations has driven the exploration of alternative energy sources creating competition for land with other sectors. A comprehensive analysis of a 10 MW floating photovoltaic (FPV) system deployed across different Köppen climate zones along with techno-economic analysis involves evaluating technical efficiency and economic viability. Technical parameters are assessed using PVsyst simulation and HOMER Pro. While economic analysis considers return on investment net present value internal rate of return and payback period. Results indicate that temperate and dry zones exhibit significant electricity generation potential from an FPV. The study outlines the payback period with the lowest being 5.7 years emphasizing the system’s environmental benefits by reducing water loss in the form of evaporation. The system is further integrated with hydrogen generation while estimating the number of cars that can be refueled at each location with the highest amount of hydrogen production being 292817 kg/year refueling more than 100 cars per day. This leads to an LCOH of GBP 2.84/kg for 20 years. Additionally the comparison across different Koppen climate zones suggests that even with the high soiling losses dry climate has substantial potential; producing up to 18829587 kWh/year of electricity and 292817 kg/year of hydrogen. However factors such as high inflation can reduce the return on investment to as low as 13.8%. The integration of FPV with hydropower plants is suggested for enhanced power generation reaffirming its potential to contribute to a sustainable energy future while addressing the UN’s SDG7 SDG9 SDG13 and SDG15.

Infrastructure projects can act as niches for innovation development contribute to strategic goals of network owners and drive broader systemic transitions. However limited research has examined how sustainability transitions are shaped through narratives and counternarratives around infrastructure projects. Using a case study of the port of Rotterdam we analyze how three embedded projects - Maasvlakte 2 RDM Campus and the Hydrogen Pipeline - reflected and shaped evolving narratives and counter-narratives over a 20-year sustainability transition. Grounded in the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) the study demonstrates how an infrastructure owner like the Port of Rotterdam Authority (PoRA) strategically mobilized narrative framing to reshape existing regimes over time. The study contributes to the debate on project management and transition studies by highlighting how infrastructure project owners respond to transition-related tensions by shaping defending and adapting project narratives over time thereby influencing sustainability trajectories.

The carbon emission reduction mission requires a multifaceted approach in which green hydrogen is expected to play a key role. The accelerated adoption of green hydrogen technologies is vital to this journey towards carbon neutrality by 2050. However the energy transition involving green hydrogen requires a data-driven approach to ensure that the benefits are realised. The introduction of testing sites for green hydrogen technologies will be crucial in enabling the performance testing of various components within the green hydrogen value chain. This study involves an areal assessment of a selected test site for the installation of a grid-tied solar PV-green hydrogen-battery storage microgrid system at a factory facility in South Africa. The evaluation includes a site energy audit to determine the consumption profile and an analysis of the location’s weather pattern to assess its impact on the envisaged microgrid. Lastly a design of the microgrid is conceptualised. A 39 kW photovoltaic system powers the microgrid which comprises a 22 kWh battery storage system 10 kW of electrolyser capacity an 8 kW fuel cell and an 800 L hydrogen storage capacity between 30 and 40 bars.

This paper presents TwinP2G a software application for optimal planning of investments in power-to-gas (PtG) systems. TwinP2G provides simulation and optimization services for the techno-economic analysis of user-customized energy networks. The core of TwinP2G is based on power flow simulation; however it supports energy sector coupling including electricity green hydrogen natural gas and synthetic methane. The framework provides a user-friendly user interface (UI) suitable for various user roles including data scientists and energy experts using visualizations and metrics on the assessed investments. An identity and access management mechanism also serves the security and authorization needs of the framework. Finally TwinP2G revolutionizes the concept of data availability and data sharing by granting its users access to distributed energy datasets available in the EnerShare Data Space. These data are available to TwinP2G users for conducting their experiments and extracting useful insights on optimal PtG investments for the energy grid.

In the pursuit of zero-emission mobility hydrogen represents a promising fuel for internal combustion engines. However its low volumetric energy density poses challenges especially for high-performance applications where compactness and lightweight design are crucial. This study investigates the feasibility of an innovative hydrogen-fueled two-stroke opposed-piston (2S-OP) engine targeting a specific power of 130 kW/L and an indicated thermal efficiency above 40%. A detailed 3D-CFD analysis is conducted to evaluate mixture formation combustion behavior abnormal combustion and water injection as a mitigation strategy. Innovative ring-shaped multi-point injection systems with several designs are tested demonstrating the impact of injector channels’ orientation on the final mixture distribution. The combustion analysis shows that a dual-spark configuration ensures faster combustion compared to a single-spark system with a 27.5% reduction in 10% to 90% combustion duration. Pre-ignition is identified as the main limiting factor strongly linked to mixture stratification and high temperatures. To suppress it water injection is proposed. A 55% evaporation efficiency of the water mass injected lowers the in-cylinder temperature and delays pre-ignition onset. Overall the study provides key design guidelines for future high-performance hydrogen-fueled 2S-OP engines.

This study expresses energy scheduling in intelligent distribution grid with renewable resources charging stations and hydrogen stations for electric vehicles and integrated energy systems. In deterministic model objective function minimizes total operating energy losses and environmental costs of grid. Constraints are power flow equations network operating and voltage security limits operating model of renewable resources electric vehicle stations and integrated energy systems. Scheme includes uncertainties in load renewable resources charging and hydrogen stations and energy prices. Robust optimization uses to obtain an operation that is robust against the forecast error of the aforementioned uncertainties. Modeling electric vehicles station and aforementioned integrated energy systems considering economic operational and environmental objectives of network operator as objective function extracting a robust model of aforementioned uncertainties in order to extract a solution that is robust against the uncertainty prediction error and examining ability of energy management to improve voltage security of grid are among innovations of this paper. Numerical results obtained from various cases prove the aforementioned advantages and innovations. Energy management of resources charging and hydrogen stations and aforementioned integrated systems lead to scheme being robust against 35% of the prediction error of various uncertainties. In these conditions scheme has improved economic operational environmental and voltage security conditions by about 33.6% 7%- 37.4% 44.4% and 24.7% respectively compared to load flow studies. By applying optimal penalty price for energy losses and pollution pollution and energy losses in the network are reduced by about 45.15% and 34.1% respectively.

Decarbonizing ammonia production is critical to meeting global climate targets in agriculture. This study evaluates two hydrogen pathways plasmalysis and electrolysis at Ontario’s Courtright Complex using detailed techno-economic modeling. The natural gas–based plasma system achieves the lowest hydrogen cost ($1.35/kg) but incurs high annual fuel expenses ($297.7 M/y) and shows strong sensitivity to natural gas prices. Electrolysis powered by 110 MW PV 1700 MW wind 60 MW biomass 95 MWh battery storage and a 2.0 GW electrolyzer produces hydrogen at $2.07/kg with lower fuel costs ($29.7 M/y) and significant grid interaction (2.67 TWh/y imports and 1.89 TWh/y exports) enhancing operational flexibility. Over a 15-year horizon both pathways deliver substantial CO2 reductions (plasmalysis: 27000 kt; electrolysis: 26045 kt). Extending plant lifetimes from 10 to 30 y reduces the levelized cost of hydrogen from $2.25 to $1.91/kg in the plasmalysis case and from $1.52 to $1.18/kg in the electrolysis case while increasing overall net present cost. Although electrolysis requires higher capital investment ($5.53 B compared with $1.79 B) it demonstrates resilience to fuel price volatility and provides additional grid revenue. In contrast plasmalysis offers near-term cost advantages but remains dependent on fossil gas underscoring its role as a transitional rather than fully green option for ammonia decarbonization.

The present investigation aims to provide a comparative assessment of using hydrogen-enriched wood waste-derived producer gas (PG) for a dual-fuel diesel engine fueled with a 20% Jatropha biodiesel/80% diesel blend (BD20) with the traditional mode. The experiments were conducted at 23°bTDC of injection timing 240 bar of injection pressure 17.5:1 of compression ratio and 1500 rpm of engine speed under various engine loads. Gas carburetor induction (GCI) port injection (PI) and inlet manifold injection (IMI) methods were used to supply H2-enriched PG while B20 is directly injected into the combustion chamber. Among all the combinations the IMI method provided the highest brake thermal efficiency of 30.91% the lowest CO emission of 0.08% and smoke opacity discharge of 49.26 HSU while NOx emission reached 1744.32 ppm which was lower than that of the PI mode. Furthermore the IMI method recorded the highest heat release rate of 91.17 J/°CA and peak cylinder pressure of 83.29 bar reflecting superior combustion quality. Finally using the IMI method for H2-enriched PG in dual-fuel diesel engines could improve combustion efficiency reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve fuel economy showing that the combination of BD20 with H2-enriched PG offers a cleaner more sustainable and economically viable technology.

In recent years governments have promoted the shift to low-emission transport systems with electric and hydrogen vehicles emerging as key alternatives for greener urban mobility. Evaluating zero- or near-zero tailpipe solutions requires a Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) approach accounting for emissions from energy production components and vehicle manufacturing. Such studies mainly address Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions while other pollutants are often overlooked. This study compares the Human Toxicity Potential (HTP) of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs) Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (H2ICEVs) and hybrid H2ICEVs for public transport in the European Union. Current and future scenarios (2024 2030 2050) are examined considering evolving energy mixes and manufacturing impacts. Results underline that BEVs are characterized by the highest HTP in 2024 and that this trend is maintained even in future scenarios. As for hydrogen-based powertrains they show lower HTPs similar among them. This work underlines that current efforts must be intensified especially for BEVs to further limit harmful emissions from the mobility sector.

Smart energy systems can be used to generate additional financial value by providing flexibility to the electricity network. It is fundamental to the effective economic implementation of these systems that an assessment can be made in advance to determine available value in comparison with any additional costs. The basic premise is that there is a distinct advantage in using similar algorithms to an actual smart energy system implementation for value assessment and that this is practical in this context which is confirmed in comparison with simpler modelling methods. Analysis has been undertaken using a ‘green’ hydrogen system case study of the impact of various simplifications to the value assessment algorithms used to speed computation time without sacrificing the decisionmaking potential of the output. The results indicate that for localised energy systems with a small number of controllable assets an rolling horizon optimisation model with a significant degree of temporal and component complexity is viable for planning phase value assessment requirements and would be a similar level of complexity to a computationally suitable implementation algorithm for actual asset control decision making.

The environmentally vulnerable Arctic’s harsh climate and remote geography demand innovative green energy solutions. This study introduces a hybrid off-grid system that integrates wave and wind energy with hydrogenelectricity conversion technologies. Designed to power cruise ships at berth fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles and residential heating the system tackles the challenge of energy variability through dual optimization schemes. External optimization identifies a cost-effective architecture achieving a net present cost of $1.1M and a levelized hydrogen cost of $20.1/kg without a fuel cell. Internal optimizations employing multi-objective game theory and HYBRID algorithms further improve performance reducing the net present cost to $666K with a levelized hydrogen cost of $13.74/kg (game theory) and $729K with a levelized hydrogen of $15.63/kg (HYBRID). A key innovation is hydrokinetic turbines which streamline the design by cutting cumulative cash flow requirements by $470K from $1.85M to $1.38M. This approach prioritizes intelligent energy management shifting reliance from variable wind and wave inputs to optimized electrolyzer and battery operations. These results underscore the feasibility of cost-effective and scalable renewable energy systems and provide a compelling blueprint for addressing energy challenges in remote and resource-constrained environments.

The widespread adoption of hydrogen-fueled vehicles (HFVs) and the deployment of Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRS) hinge on the ability to accurately predict system performance and ensure operational reliability. This study proposes a novel predictive framework integrating mathematical modeling state-space analysis and advanced data mining techniques supported by reliability analysis to evaluate the performance of HFVs and their associated refueling infrastructure. Utilizing a public dataset of 500 real-time operational data points key performance indicators are statistically analyzed. A significant negative correlation (r = −0.56) between hydrogen consumption and maximum vehicle range is identified highlighting that improved hydrogen efficiency directly extends travel range. The average maximum range is 555.21 km with a standard deviation of 87.09 km and a median of 563.65 km indicating strong consistency across vehicles. These findings underscore the importance of optimizing fuel efficiency to enhance system sustainability and inform the design and operation of next-generation hydrogen mobility solutions. The proposed approach offers a robust foundation for performance forecasting infrastructure planning and policy development in hydrogen-based transportation systems.

Research on and the demand for hydrogen-powered vehicles have grown significantly over the past two decades as a solution for sustainable transportation. Bibliometric analysis helps to assess research trends key contributions and the impact of studies focused on the safety and reliability of hydrogen-powered vehicles. This study provides a novel methodology for bibliometric analysis that systematically evaluates the global research landscape on hydrogen-powered vehicle reliability using Scopus-indexed publication data (1965 to 2024). Eighteen key parameters were identified for this study that are often used by researchers for the bibliometric analysis of hydrogen-related studies. Data analytics VOSviewer-based visualization and research impact indicators were integrated to comprehensively assess publication trends key contributors and citation networks. The analysis revealed that hydrogen-powered vehicle reliability research has experienced significant growth over the past two decades with leading contributions from high-impact journals renowned institutions and influential authors. The present study emphasizes the significance of greater funding as well as open-access distribution. Furthermore while major worldwide institutions have significant institutional relationships there are gaps in real-world hydrogen infrastructure evaluations large-scale experimental validation and policy-driven research.

Ocean islands possess abundant renewable energy resources providing favorable conditions for developing offshore clean energy microgrids. However geographical isolation poses significant challenges for direct energy transfer between islands. Recent electrolysis and hydrogen storage technology advancements have created new opportunities for distributed energy utilization in these remote areas. This paper presents a low-carbon economic dispatch strategy designed explicitly for distant oceanic islands incorporating energy self-sufficiency rates and seasonal hydrogen storage (SHS). We propose a power supply model for offshore islands considering hydrogen production from offshore wind power. The proposed model minimizes operational and carbon emission costs while maximizing energy self-sufficiency. It considers the operational constraints of the island’s energy system the offshore transportation network the hydrogen storage infrastructure and the electricityhydrogen-transportation coupling of hydrogen storage (HS) and seasonal hydrogen storage (SHS) services. To optimize the dispatch process this study employs an improved Grey Wolf Optimizer (IGWO) combined with the Differential Evolution method to enhance population diversity and refine the position updating mechanism. Simulation results demonstrate that integrating HS and SHS effectively enhances energy self-sufficiency and reduces carbon emissions. For instance hydrogenation costs decreased by 21.4% after optimization and the peak-valley difference was reduced by 16%. These findings validate the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed approach.

Most remote and northern communities rely on diesel for their electrical and thermal energy needs. Communities and governments are working toward diesel exit strategies but the role of hydrogen technologies has not been explored. These could serve both electrical and thermal demand reduce emissions and enhance energy security and community ownership. Here we determine the installed capacities costs hydrogen storage needs and water resource requirements of hydrogen microgrids across a large diverse sample of communities. We also compare the cost of hydrogen microgrids to that of diesel microgrids. Our results optimize resource deployment demonstrate how sub-components must operate to serve both demand types and yield insights on storage and resource needs. We find that hydrogen microgrids are cheaper in levelized cost terms than diesel systems in 28 of 37 communities investigated; if wind power capital costs escalate to CAD 20000/kW as recently seen in one project only 3 of the 37 communities net hydrogen microgrids that are cheaper than diesel variants. Hydrogen storage plays a large role in maintaining reliability and reducing cost—both it and water needs are modest. The former can be met with current technologies.

The decarbonization of remote energy systems presents both technical and economic challenges due to their dependance on fossil fuels and the variability of renewable energy sources. This study introduces a Two-Stage Stochastic Programming approach to optimize Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems under uncertainty in renewable energy production. The methodology is applied to the island of Pantelleria aiming to minimize Total Annualized Costs and CO2 emissions using an ε-constraint approach. Results show that within the set of optimized configurations stricter CO2 emissions constraints increase costs due to the need for oversized components to ensure supply reliability. Nevertheless even the zeroemissions scenario offers significant economic benefits compared to the current diesel-based system. Total Annualized Costs are reduced from 15.5 M€ to 8.10 M€ in the deterministic case and to 9.37 M€ in the stochastic one. The additional cost in the stochastic configuration is offset by improved reliability ensuring demand is met under all scenarios. A sensitivity analysis on electricity demand reveals the necessity of further larger components leading to a 27.0% cost increase in a fully renewable scenario with stochastic optimization for a 10% demand increase. These findings highlight the importance of stochastic optimization in designing cost-effective off-grid renewable energy systems.

This study presents a novel multi-objective optimization framework supporting nations sustainability 2030–2040 visions by enhancing renewable energy integration green hydrogen production and emission reduction. The framework evaluates a range of energy storage technologies including battery pumped hydro compressed air energy storage and hybrid configurations under realistic system constraints using the IEEE 9-bus test system. Results show that without storage renewable penetration is limited to 28.65% with 1538 tCO2/day emissions whereas integrating pumped hydro with battery (PHB) enables 40% penetration cuts emissions by 40.5% and reduces total system cost to 570 k$/day (84% of the baseline cost). The framework’s scalability is confirmed via simulations on IEEE 30- 39- 57- and 118-bus systems with execution times ranging from 118.8 to 561.5 s using the HiGHS solver on a constrained Google Colab environment. These findings highlight PHB as the most cost-effective and sustainable storage solution for large-scale renewable integration.