Policy & Socio-Economics

Concerning the transition from a carbon-based energy economy to a renewable energy economy hydrogen is considered an essential energy carrier for efficient and broad energy systems in China in the near future. China aims to gradually replace fossil fuel-based power generation with renewable energy technologies to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060. This ambitious undertaking will involve building an industrial production chain spanning the production storage transportation and utilisation of hydrogen energy by 2030 (when China’s carbon peak will be reached). This review analyses the current status of technological R&D in China’s hydrogen energy industry. Based on published data in the open literature we compared the costs and carbon emissions for grey blue and green hydrogen production. The primary challenges concerning hydrogen transportation and storage are highlighted in this study. Given that primary carbon emissions in China are a result of power generation using fossil fuels we provide an overview of the advances in hydrogen-to-power industry technology R&D including hydrogen-related power generation technology hydrogen fuel cells hydrogen internal combustion engines hydrogen gas turbines and catalytic hydrogen combustion using liquid hydrogen carriers (e.g. ammonia methanol and ethanol).

Currently the global energy structure is undergoing a transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources with the hydrogen economy playing a pivotal role. Hydrogen is not only an important energy carrier needed to achieve the global goal of energy conservation and emission reduction it represents a key object of the future international energy trade. As hydrogen trade expands nations are increasingly allocating resources to enhance the international competitiveness of their respective hydrogen industries. This paper introduces an index that can be used to evaluate international hydrogen competitiveness and elucidate the most competitive countries in the hydrogen trade. To calculate the competitiveness scores of seven major prospective hydrogen market participants we employed the entropy weight method. This method considers five essential factors: potential resources economic and financial base infrastructure government support and institutional environment and technological feasibility. The results indicate that the USA and Australia exhibit the highest composite indices. These findings can serve as a guide for countries in formulating suitable policies and strategies to bolster the development and international competitiveness of their respective hydrogen industries.

There is a growing interest in green hydrogen with researchers institutions and countries focusing on its development efficiency improvement and cost reduction. This paper explores the concept of green hydrogen and its production process using renewable energy sources in several leading countries including Australia the European Union India Canada China Russia the United States South Korea South Africa Japan and other nations in North Africa. These regions possess significant potential for “green” hydrogen production supporting the transition from fossil fuels to clean energy and promoting environmental sustainability through the electrolysis process a common method of production. The paper also examines the benefits of green hydrogen as a future alternative to fossil fuels highlighting its superior environmental properties with zero net greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover it explores the potential advantages of green hydrogen utilization across various industrial commercial and transportation sectors. The research suggests that green hydrogen can be the fuel of the future when applied correctly in suitable applications with improvements in production and storage techniques as well as enhanced efficiency across multiple domains. Optimization strategies can be employed to maximize efficiency minimize costs and reduce environmental impact in the design and operation of green hydrogen production systems. International cooperation and collaborative efforts are crucial for the development of this technology and the realization of its full benefits.

Considering the clean renewable and ecologically friendly characteristics of hydrogen gas as well as its high energy density hydrogen energy is thought to be the most potent contender to locally replace fossil fuels. The creation of a sustainable energy system is currently one of the critical industrial challenges and electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution associated with appropriate safe storage techniques are key strategies to implement systems based on hydrogen technologies. The recent progress made possible through nanotechnology incorporation either in terms of innovative methods of hydrogen storage or production methods is a guarantee of future breakthroughs in energy sustainability. This manuscript addresses concisely and originally the importance of including nanotechnology in both green electroproduction of hydrogen and hydrogen storage in solid media. This work is mainly focused on these issues and eventually intends to change beliefs that hydrogen technologies are being imposed only for reasons of sustainability and not for the intrinsic value of the technology itself. Moreover nanophysics and nano-engineering have the potential to significantly change the paradigm of conventional hydrogen technologies.

Industrial applications of hydrogen are key to the transition towards a sustainable lowcarbon economy. Hydrogen has the potential to decarbonize industrial sectors that currently rely heavily on fossil fuels. Hydrogen with its unique and versatile properties has several in-industrial applications that are fundamental for sustainability and energy efficiency such as the following: (i) chemical industry; (ii) metallurgical sector; (iii) transport; (iv) energy sector; and (v) agrifood sector. The development of a bibliometric analysis of industrial hydrogen applications in Europe is crucial to understand and guide developments in this emerging field. Such an analysis can identify research trends collaborations between institutions and countries and the areas of greatest impact and growth. By examining the scientific literature and comparing it with final hydrogen consumption in different regions of Europe the main actors and technologies that are driving innovation in industrial hydrogen use on the continent can be identified. The results obtained allow for an assessment of the knowledge gaps and technological challenges that need to be addressed to accelerate the uptake of hydrogen in various industrial sectors. This is essential to guide future investments and public policies towards strategic areas that maximize the economic and environmental impact of industrial hydrogen applications in Europe.

With the development of an energy sector based on renewable primary sources structural changes are emerging for the entire national energy system. Initially it was estimated that energy generation based on fossil fuels would decrease until its disappearance. However the evolution of CO2 capture capacity leads to a possible coexistence for a certain period with the renewable energy sector. The paper develops this concept of the coexistence of the two systems with the positioning of green hydrogen not only within the renewable energy sector but also as a transformation vector for carbon dioxide captured in the form of synthetic fuels such as CH4 and CH3OH. The authors conducted pilot-scale research on CO2 capture with green H2 both for pure (captured) CO2 and for CO2 found in combustion gases. The positive results led to the respective recommendation. The research conducted by the authors meets the strict requirements of the current energy phase with the authors considering that wind and solar energy alone are not sufficient to meet current energy demand. The paper also analyzes the economic aspects related to price differences for energy produced in the two sectors as well as their interconnection. The technical aspect as well as the economic aspect of storage through various other solutions besides hydrogen has been highlighted. The development of the renewable energy sector and its demarcation from the fossil fuel energy sector even with the transcendent vector represented by green hydrogen leads to the deepening of dispersion aspects between the electricity sector and the thermal energy sector a less commonly mentioned aspect in current works but of great importance. The purpose of this paper is to highlight energy challenges during the current transition period towards climate neutrality along with solutions proposed by the authors to be implemented in this phase. The current stage of combustion of the CH4 − H2 mixture imposes requirements for the capture of the resulting CO2.

Energy and environmental issues are of great importance in the present era. The transition to renewable energy sources necessitates technological political and behavioral transformations. Hydrogen is a promising solution and many countries are investing in the hydrogen economy. Global demand for hydrogen is expected to reach 120 million tonnes by 2024. The incorporation of hydrogen for efficient energy transport and storage and its integration into the transport sector are crucial measures. However to fully develop a hydrogen-based economy the sustainability and safety of hydrogen in all its applications must be ensured. This work describes and compares different technologies for hydrogen production storage and utilization (especially in fuel cell applications) with focus on the research activities under study at SaRAH group of the University of Naples Federico II. More precisely the focus is on the production of hydrogen from bio-alcohols and its storage in formate solutions produced from renewable sources such as biomass or carbon dioxide. In addition the use of materials inspired by nature including biowaste as feedstock to produce porous electrodes for fuel cell applications is presented. We hope that this review can be useful to stimulate more focused and fruitful research in this area and that it can open new avenues for the development of sustainable hydrogen technologies.

A sustainable future hydrogen economy hinges on the development of green hydrogen and the shift away from grey hydrogen but this is highly reliant on reducing production costs which are currently too high for green hydrogen to be competitive. This study predicts the cost trajectory of alkaline and proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers based on ongoing research and development (R&D) scale effects and experiential learning consequently influencing the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) projections. Electrolyzer capital costs are estimated to drop to 88 USD/kW for alkaline and 60 USD/kW for PEM under an optimistic scenario by 2050 or 388 USD/kW and 286 USD/kW respectively under a pessimistic scenario with PEM potentially dominating the market. Through a combination of declining electrolyzer costs and a levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) the global LCOH of green hydrogen is projected to fall below 5 USD/kgH2 for solar onshore and offshore wind energy sources under both scenarios by 2030. To facilitate a quicker transition the implementation of financial strategies such as additional revenue streams a hydrogen/carbon credit system and an oxygen one (a minimum retail price of 2 USD/kgO2 ) and regulations such as a carbon tax (minimum 100 USD/tonCO2 for 40 USD/MWh electricity) and a contract-for-difference scheme could be pivotal. These initiatives would act as financial catalysts accelerating the transition to a greener hydrogen economy.

This study develops a novel community-based integrated energy system where hydrogen and a combination of renewable energy sources are considered uniquely for implementation. In this regard three different communities situated in Kenya the United States and Australia are studied for hydrogen production and meeting the energy demands. To provide a variety of energy demands this study combines a multigenerational geothermal plant with a hybrid concentrated solar power and photovoltaic solar plant. Innovations in hydrogen production and renewable energy are essential for reducing carbon emissions. By combining the production of hydrogen with renewable energy sources this system seeks to move away from the reliance on fossil fuels and toward sustainability. The study investigates various research subjects using a variety of methods. The performance of the geothermal source is considered through energetic and exergetic thermodynamic analysis. The software System Advisor Model (SAM) and RETscreen software packages are used to analyze the other sub-systems including Concentrate Solar PV solar and Combined Heat and Power Plant. Australian American and Kenyan communities considered for this study were found to have promising potential for producing hydrogen and electricity from renewable sources. The geothermal output is expected to be 35.83 MW 122.8 MW for space heating 151.9 MW for industrial heating and 64.25 MW for hot water. The overall geothermal energy and exergy efficiencies are reported as 65.15% and 63.54% respectively. The locations considered are expected to have annual solar power generation and hydrogen production capacities of 158MW 237MW 186MW 235 tons 216 tons and 313 tons respectively.

To identify lower-carbon and cost-effective hydrogen supplies for fuel and power generation in Singapore we assessed the cradle-to-gate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the landed costs of over fifty supply chains from Malaysia and Australia with current and emerging blue turquoise and green hydrogen production and carrier technologies. We found that with current technologies the total life cycle global warming potential of local H2 production using steam methane reforming with carbon capture (4.47 kg CO2e/kg H2) is lower than importing solar-generated green H2 from Australia transported as NH3 (6.48 kg CO2e/kg H2) due to large emissions from conversion and transportation processes in the latter supply chain. When also considering emerging technologies turquoise H2 produced with the thermal decomposition of methane locally or in Malaysia is the most economical solution while wind-generated H2 from Australia transported as liquefied H2 or NH3 produce the least GHG emissions. In addition we projected the impacts of the Singapore carbon tax methane abatement in NG production and reduction of renewable energy embodied emissions and costs on the supply chains in the year 2030. We estimated that with the expected renewable energy improvements the emissions and costs of power generated from imported solar-powered H2 could drop by as much as 74% and 70% respectively.

This article presents the results of a comparative scenario analysis of the “green hydrogen” development pathways in Poland and the EU in the 2050 perspective. We prepared the scenarios by linking three models: two sectoral models for the power and transport sectors and a Computable General Equilibrium model (d-Place). The basic precondition for the large-scale use of hydrogen in both Poland and in European Union countries is the pursuit of ambitious greenhouse gas reduction targets. The EU plans indicate that the main source of hydrogen will be renewable energy (RES). “Green hydrogen” is seen as one of the main methods with which to balance energy supply from intermittent RES such as solar and wind. The questions that arise concern the amount of hydrogen required to meet the energy needs in Poland and Europe in decarbonized sectors of the economy and to what extent can demand be covered by internal production. In the article we estimated the potential of the production of “green hydrogen” derived from electrolysis for different scenarios of the development of the electricity sector in Poland and the EU. For 2050 it ranges from 76 to 206 PJ/y (Poland) and from 4449 to 5985 PJ/y (EU+). The role of hydrogen as an energy storage was also emphasized highlighting its use in the process of stabilizing the electric power system. Hydrogen usage in the energy sector is projected to range from 67 to 76 PJ/y for Poland and from 1066 to 1601 PJ/y for EU+ by 2050. Depending on the scenario this implies that between 25% and 35% of green hydrogen will be used in the power sector as a long-term energy storage.

This publication presents the results of a pre-feasibility study to introduce a green hydrogen (GH2) market in Trinidad and Tobago (T&T). The study analyzed the potential supply and competitiveness of producing GH2 in T&T and the actions needed to build a foundation for producing green ammonia and methanol. The study updated previous estimates of renewable energy generation potential in the country. The study also highlighted Trinidad and Tobago's comparative advantage to produce GH2 with its ability to capitalize on existing infrastructure its know-how and capabilities and its long-standing trade relations. Lastly the study identifies demonstration projects and created a roadmap for developing a low carbon hydrogen economy in Trinidad and Tobago.

In 2015 during the lead up to the Paris Climate Agreement the United States set forth a Nationally Determined Contribution that outlines national goals for greenhouse gas emission reductions. It was not until 2021 that the US put forth a long-term strategy that lays out the pathway to reach these goals. The US long-term strategy lays the framework for research needs to meet the greenhouse gas emission reduction goals and incentivizes industry to meet the goals using a variety of policies. The five US long term strategy core elements are to decarbonize electricity electrify end uses and switch to clean fuels cut energy waste reduce methane and other non-carbon dioxide greenhouse gas emissions and to scale up carbon dioxide removal. Implementation of the long term strategy has generally been funded by tax incentives and government grants that were approved as part of the Inflation Reduction Act. Political headwinds societal Not in My Backyard resistance long-term economic funding cumbersome permitting requirements and incentives vs. taxation debate are significant policy/nontechnical hurdles. Technical challenges remain regarding effective energy efficiency implementation the use of hydrogen as a fuel cost effective carbon emission treatment nuclear energy expansion renewables expansion and grid integration biofuel integration efficient and safe energy storage and electrical grid adequacy/expansion. This review article condenses the multitude of technical and policy issues facing the US long-term strategy providing readers with an overview of the extent and magnitude of the challenges while outlining possible solutions.

Hydrogen has been at the centre of attention since the EU kicked-off its decarbonization agenda at full speed. Many consider it a silver bullet for the deep decarbonization of technically challenging sectors and industries but it is also an attractive option for the gas industry to retain and future-proof its well-developed infrastructure networks. The modelling methodology presented in this report systematically tests the feasibility and cost of different pipeline transportation methods – blending repurposing and dedicated hydrogen pipelines - under different decarbonization pathways and concludes that blending is not a viable solution and pipeline repurposing can lead to excessive investment outlays in the range of EUR 19–25 bn over the modelled period (2020–2050) for the EU-27.

This report presents an analysis of how hydrogen and battery technologies are likely to be utilised in different sectors within the UK including transportation manufacturing the built environment and power. In particular the report compares the use of hydrogen and battery technology across these sectors. In addition it evaluates where these technologies will be in competition where one technology will dominate and where a combination of the two may be used. This sector analysis draws on DNV’s knowledge and experience within both the battery and hydrogen industries along with a review of studies available in the public domain. The analysis has been incorporated into DNV’s Energy Transition Outlook model an integrated system-dynamics simulation model covering the energy system which provides an independent view of the energy outlook from now until 2050. The modelling which includes data on costs demand supply policy population and economic indicators enables the non-linear interdependencies between different parameters to be considered so that decisions made in one sector influence the decision made in another.

The hydrogen energy industry as one of the most important directions for future energy transformation can promote the sustainable development of the global economy and of society. China has raised the development of hydrogen energy to a strategic position. Based on the patent data in the past two decades this study investigates the collaborative innovation relationships in China’s hydrogen energy field using complex network theory. Firstly patent data filed between 2003 and 2023 are analyzed and compared in terms of time geography and institutional and technological dimensions. Subsequently a patent collaborative innovation network is constructed to explore the fundamental characteristics and evolutionary patterns over five stages. Furthermore centrality measures and community detection algorithms are utilized to identify core entities and innovation alliances within the network which reveal that China’s hydrogen energy industry is drifting toward alliance innovation. The study results show the following: (1) the network has grown rapidly in size and scope over the last two decades and evolved from the initial stage to the multi-center stage before forming innovation alliances; (2) core innovative entities are important supports and bridges for China’s hydrogen energy industry and control most resources and maintain the robustness of the whole network; (3) innovation alliances reveal the closeness of the collaborative relationships between innovative entities and the potential landscape of China’s hydrogen energy industry; and (4) most of the innovation alliances cooperate only on a narrow range of technologies which may hinder the overall sustainable growth of the hydrogen energy industry. Thereafter some suggestions are put forward from the perspective of an industrial chain and innovation chain which may provide a theoretical reference for collaborative innovation and the future development and planning in the field of hydrogen energy in China.

Climate change and energy crises push Europe to accelerate the energy-industry transition towards higher shares of renewable energy and a more efficient integrated electricity-based energy-industry system. The study examines transition scenarios ranging from carbon neutrality reached in 2050 to highest ambitions with 100% renewable electricity supply reached by 2030 and an overall carbon-neutral energy-industry system by 2035. The fastest transition coincidences with higher cost but still with an acceptable tolerance. Reaching carbon neutrality by 2040 allows for a substantial reduction in CO2 emissions and energy costs are lower compared to the fastest transition. Allowing e-fuel imports substantially reduces the energy cost in Europe compared to complete energy sovereignty with an optimal import share at only 7% of primary energy demand. Reaching an affordable energy supply requires close cooperation of European countries to exploit the best renewable resources and all sources of energy system flexibility to enable a low-cost energy supply.

The global need for energy has risen sharply recently. A global shift to clean energy is urgently needed to avoid catastrophic climate impacts. Hydrogen (H2) has emerged as a potential alternative energy source with near-net-zero emissions. In the African continent for sustainable access to clean energy and the transition away from fossil fuels this paper presents a new approach through which waste energy can produce green hydrogen from biomass. Bio-based hydrogen employing organic waste and biomass is recommended using biological (anaerobic digestion and fermentation) processes for scalable cheaper and low-carbon hydrogen. By reviewing all methods for producing green hydrogen dark fermentation can be applied in developed and developing countries without putting pressure on natural resources such as freshwater and rare metals the primary feedstocks used in producing green hydrogen by electrolysis. It can be expanded to produce medium- and long-term green hydrogen without relying heavily on energy sources or building expensive infrastructure. Implementing the dark fermentation process can support poor communities in producing green hydrogen as an energy source regardless of political and tribal conflicts unlike other methods that require political stability. In addition this approach does not require the approval of new legislation. Such processes can ensure the minimization of waste and greenhouse gases. To achieve cost reduction in hydrogen production by 2030 governments should develop a strategy to expand the use of dark fermentation reactors and utilize hot water from various industrial processes (waste energy recovery from hot wastewater).

This report investigates the status and trend of Renewable Fuels of Non-Biological Origin (RFNBO) except hydrogen which are needed to cover part of the EU’s demand for low carbon renewable fuels in the coming years. The report is an update of the CETO 2023 report. Most of the conversion technologies investigated have been already demonstrated at small-scale and the current EU legislative framework under the recast of the Renewable Energy Directive (EU) 2018/2001 (Directive EU 2023/2413) sets specific targets for their use. As a pre-requisite well-established solid hydrogen supply chains are needed together with carbon capture technologies to provide carbon dioxide as Carbon Capture and Use (CCU). Fuels that may be produced starting from H2 and CO2 or N2 are hydrocarbons alcohols and ammonia. RFNBO may play a crucial role in the energytransition towards decarbonisation especially in hard-to-abate sectors where direct electrification is not possible. In addition most RFNBO can use existing infrastructure. The growing interest in these fuels is witnessed by the many funding programmes which are today available. Moreover EU leads the sector in terms of patents companies and demonstration activities. Finally the report considers the major challenges and the opportunities for a rapid market uptake of such fuels.

Photovoltaic (PV) system grid integration is becoming more global to minimize carbon emissions from traditional power systems.However alternative solution investigation for maximum technical and economic benefits is often neglected when integrating PVsystems. This study utilizes a methodology for evaluating the lifecycle energy generation and levelized cost of energy (LCOE) ofPV systems with various configurations using a holistic approach that considers PV system expenditures from installation to theend-of-life PV system operation. In addition this work focuses on finding a better configuration with different PV modules(monofacial or bifacial) and structure types (mounted or single-axis) for three different utility scale PV sizes (300 kW 500 kWand 1000 kW) in Abu Dhabi UAE with the maximum power generation and minimal energy losses. Furthermore the bestsuitable configuration was identified to be the configuration with a single-axis tracking structure and bifacial PV modulesbased on their technical and economic performance for the location with two different surface albedo 0.2 and 0.8. We alsostudy the PV system’s connection in a standalone off-grid solar-electrolyzer combination to produce green hydrogen. Levelizedcost of electricity (LCOE) and levelized cost of hydrogen production (LCOH) are calculated and results show that such PVsystems can be used to generate electricity and produce hydrogen at competitive costs that can reach as low as 2.1 cent/kWhand $2.53/kg-H2 for LCOE and LCOH respectively. Such a low cost is very competitive and can be used to attract newinvestments in green hydrogen technology in the United Arab Emirates.

This report is an output of the Clean Energy Technology Observatory (CETO). CETO's objective is to provide an evidence-based analysis feeding the policy making process and hence increasing the effectiveness of R&I policies for clean energy technologies and solutions. It monitors EU research and innovation activities on clean energy technologies needed for the delivery of the European Green Deal; and assesses the competitiveness of the EU clean energy sector and its positioning in the global energy market. CETO is being implemented by the Joint Research Centre for DG Research and Innovation in coordination with DG Energy.

Green hydrogen obtained from renewable electricity can play an essential role in the decarbonization of different sectors. The reliability of the data used to model the entire supply chain is a crucial parameter in Life Cycle Assessment. In this study the authors show how photovoltaic and wind electricity supply chains influence the carbon footprint of green H2. While most published studies rely on default datasets from commercial libraries the current work exploits the actual supply chain of the PV panels and builds an updated average European wind turbine supply chain. The updated values for PV-based H2 experiencing a 40–60% reduction are 2.7 and 1.8 kg CO2 eq./kg H2 for the UK and Italy. The carbon footprint of UK offshore wind-based H2 can be reduced up to 24% and get close to 0.6 kg CO2 eq./kg H2. The findings emphasize the sensitivity of the final climate profile generated by the processes upstream of the electrolysis system.

We analyze barriers to setting up a hydrogen market by using a PESTEL framework that examines political economic social technological environmental and legal barriers. This framework is advantageous for analyzing macro-environmental factors to understand potential challenges and opportunities in creating such a market. Internationally the framework was applied to analyzing barriers in 56 national hydrogen roadmaps and domestically in the U.S. to semi-structured interviews with 43 stakeholders involved with hydrogen projects across the U.S. today. In the country-level international analysis infrastructure development was the most identified barrier with 43 countries including this factor. Infrastructure development included infrastructure for hydrogen storage transportation and distribution and frequently alluded not only to the need for the infra structure but also the costs associated. The second most identified barrier was related to the need for market development - including but not limited to capital costs economic competition supply and demand matching and first-mover reticence. For the domestic analysis results from qualitative content analysis confirmed considerable variability across regions and stakeholder backgrounds. Particularly notable were divergent views about the importance of public understanding of and support for hydrogen projects with industry respondents arguing this was not important and government and academic respondents considering it very important. The barriers seen as having the largest impact on deployment of hydrogen projects was a lack of regulatory clarity and lack of decision makers’ knowledge and awareness. Domestically the most often introduced barriers were the need for the support of market demand and the need to develop a hydrogen workforce.

The influence of mobility modes within Positive Energy Districts (PEDs) has gained limited attention despite their crucial role in reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Buildings in the European Union (EU) account for 40% of energy consumption and 36% of greenhouse gas emissions. In comparison transport contributes 28% of energy use and 25% of emissions with road transport responsible for 72% of these emissions. This study aims to design and optimize a synthetic PED in Istanbul that integrates renewable energy sources and public mobility systems to address these challenges. The renewable energy sources integrated into the synthetic PED model include solar energy hydrogen energy and regenerative braking energy from a tram system. Solar panels provided a substantial portion of the energy while hydrogen energy contributed to additional electricity generation. Regenerative braking energy from the tram system was also utilized to further optimize energy production within the district. This system powers a middle school 10 houses a supermarket and the tram itself. Optimization techniques including Linear Programming (LP) for economic purposes and the Weighted Sum Method (WSM) for environmental goals were applied to balance cost and CO2 emissions. The LP method identified that the PED model can achieve cost competitiveness with conventional energy grids when hydrogen costs are below $93.16/MWh. Meanwhile the WSM approach demonstrated that achieving a minimal CO2 emission level of 5.74 tons requires hydrogen costs to be $32.55/MWh or lower. Compared to a conventional grid producing 97 tons of CO2 annually the PED model achieved reductions of up to 91.26 tons. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse on sustainable urban energy systems by addressing key research gaps related to the integration of mobility modes within PEDs and offering insights into the optimization of renewable energy sources for reducing emissions and energy consumption.

Low carbon hydrogen is essential to achieve the Government’s Clean Energy Superpower and Growth Missions. It will be a crucial enabler of a low carbon and renewables-based energy system and will help to deliver new clean energy industries which can support good jobs in our industrial heartlands and coastal communities. Hydrogen presents significant growth and economic opportunities across the UK by enhancing our energy security providing flexible cleaner energy for our power system and helping to decarbonise vital UK industries. Hydrogen has a critical role in helping to achieve our Clean Energy Superpower Mission. It can provide flexible low carbon power generation meaning we can use hydrogen to produce electricity during extended periods of low renewable output. Hydrogen can also provide interseasonal energy storage through conversion of electricity into hydrogen and then back into electricity at times of need using a combination of hydrogen production storage and hydrogen to power. To advance our Clean Energy and Growth Missions hydrogen also has a unique role in transitioning crucial UK industries away from oil and gas and towards a clean homegrown source of fuel. Hydrogen can decarbonise hard-to-abate sectors like chemicals and heavy transport complementing our wider electrification efforts and accelerating our progress to net zero. Using our strong domestic expertise and favourable geology geography and infrastructure backing UK hydrogen can unlock significant economic opportunities and new low carbon jobs of the future. Government has an ambitious range of policies in place to incentivise and support industry to invest in low carbon hydrogen. The recent Hydrogen Skills Workforce Assessment an industry-led study undertaken by the Hydrogen Skills Alliance estimated that the UK hydrogen economy could support 29000 direct jobs and 64500 indirect jobs by 2030. Since establishing in Summer 2024 this Government has already made significant progress in delivering the UK hydrogen economy. This includes confirming support for the 11 successful Hydrogen Allocation Round 1 projects announcing up to £21.7 billion of available funding to launch the UK’s new carbon capture utilisation and storage industry and publishing our hydrogen to power consultation response with an aim to establish a new hydrogen to power business model. We have also launched three new bodies – the National Energy System Operator Great British Energy and the National Wealth Fund – which will help to deliver a world-class energy system including for low carbon hydrogen. This December 2024 Hydrogen Strategy Update to the Market sets out the key milestones achieved by the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero in 2024 to deliver the hydrogen economy and an ambitious forward look at our next steps and upcoming opportunities. To achieve net zero and create a thriving and resilient energy landscape we are already working at considerable pace to deliver a world-leading UK hydrogen sector.