Policy & Socio-Economics

This report aims to summarise the status of the European hydrogen policy landscape. It is based on the information available at the European Hydrogen Observatory (EHO) website the leading source of data on hydrogen in Europe. The data presented in this report is based on research conducted by Hydrogen Europe until the end of July 2024 but also goes beyond this timeline for major policies legislations or standards implemented recently. This report builds upon the previous version published in April 2024 which reflected data as of August 2023 providing updated insights on European policies and legislation national strategies national policies and legislation and codes and standards. Interactive data dashboards can be accessed on the website: https://observatory.cleanhydrogen.europa.eu/ The EU policies and legislation section provides insights into the main European policies and legislation relevant to the hydrogen sector which are briefly summarized on content and their potential impact to the sector. The national hydrogen strategies chapter offers a comprehensive examination of the hydrogen strategies adopted in Europe. It summarizes the quantitative indicators that have been published (targets and estimates) and provides brief summaries of the different national strategies that have been adopted. The section referring to national policies and legislation focuses on the policy framework measures incentives and targets in place that have an impact on the development of the respective national hydrogen markets within Europe. The codes and standards section provides information on current European standards and initiatives developed by the standardisation bodies including CEN CENELEC ISO IEC OIML The standards are categorised according to the different stages of the hydrogen value chain: production distribution and storage and end-use applications.

As part of global decarbonization efforts hydrogen has emerged as a key energy carrier that can achieve deep emission reductions in various sectors. This review critically assesses the role of hydrogen in the low-carbon energy transition and highlights the interlinked challenges within the Techno-Enviro-Socio-Political (TESP) framework. It examines key aspects of deployment including production storage safety environmental impacts and socio-political factors to present an integrated view of the opportunities and barriers to large-scale adoption. Despite growing global interest over 90 % of the current global hydrogen production originated from fossilbased processes resulting in around 920 Mt of CO2 emissions two-thirds of which were attributable to fossil fuels. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) shows that coal-based electrolysis resulted in the highest GHG emission (144 - 1033 g CO2-eq/MJ) and an energy consumption (1.55–10.33 MJ/MJ H2). Without a switch to low-carbon electricity electrolysis cannot deliver significant climate benefits. Conversely methanol steam reforming based on renewable feedstock offered the lowest GHG intensity (23.17 g CO2-eq/MJ) and energy demand (0.23 MJ/ MJ) while biogas reforming proved to be a practical short-term option with moderate emissions (51.5 g CO2-eq/ MJ) and favourable energy figures. Catalytic ammonia cracking which is suitable for long-distance transport represents a compromise between low energy consumption (2.93 MJ/MJ) and high water intensity (8.34 L/km). The thermophysical properties of hydrogen including its low molecular weight high diffusivity and easy flammability lead to significant safety risks during storage and distribution which are exacerbated by its sensitivity to ignition and jet pulse effects. The findings show that a viable hydrogen economy requires integrated strategies that combine decarbonised production scalable storage harmonised safety protocols and cross-sector stakeholder engagement for better public acceptance. This review sets out a multi-dimensional approach to guide technological innovation policy adaptation and infrastructure readiness to support a scalable and environmentally sustainable hydrogen economy.

This perspective sheds light on emerging research priorities crucial for advancing the low-carbon hydrogen sector considered critical for achieving net zero greenhouse gas emissions targets especially for hard-to-abate sectors. Our analysis follows a five-step process including drawing from news media academic discourse and expert consultations. We identify twenty-one major research challenges. Among the top priorities highlighted by experts are: (i) Evaluating the trade-offs of hydrogen-fueled power generation compared to hydrocarbon fuels and renewables with alternative storage solutions and the feasibility of co-firing hydrogen and ammonia with hydrocarbon fuels for backup or independent power generation; (ii) Exploring how global hydrogen trade could be shaped by market forces such as price volatility geopolitical dynamics and international collaborations; (iii) Examining the financial considerations for investors from developed nations pursuing hydrogen projects in resource-rich developing countries balancing costs investment risks and expected returns. We find statistically significant differences in opinions on hydrogen/ammonia co-firing for power generation between experts from China and those from the U.S. and Germany.

This paper compares national hydrogen (H2) infrastructure plans in Canada the United States (the USA) Singapore and Sri Lanka four countries with varying geographic and economic outlooks but shared targets for reaching net-zero emissions by 2050. It examines how each country approaches hydrogen production pipeline infrastructure policy incentives and international collaboration. Canada focuses on large-scale hydrogen production utilizing natural resources and retrofitted natural gas pipelines supplemented by carbon capture technology. The USA promotes regional hydrogen hubs with federal investment and intersectoral collaboration. Singapore suggests an innovation-based import-dominant strategy featuring hydrogen-compatible infrastructure in a land-constrained region. Sri Lanka maintains an import-facilitated pilot-scale model facilitated by donor funding and foreign collaboration. This study identifies common challenges such as hydrogen embrittlement leakages and infrastructure scalability as well as fundamental differences based on local conditions. Based on these findings strategic frameworks are proposed including scalability adaptability partnership policy architecture digitalization and equity. The findings highlight the importance of localized hydrogen solutions supported by strong international cooperation and international partnerships.

Under the UK’s carbon neutrality goals for 2050 the Liverpool City Region’s (LCR) strategic positioning with its rich industrial heritage and infrastructure assets such as extensive port facilities and proximity to vast renewable energy resources positions it as a potential leader in the UK’s shift towards a hydrogen economy. Given this the regional hydrogen industry and stakeholders in decarbonisation initiatives intend to undertake a critical review of the opportunities challenges and uncertainties to local hydrogen supply and demand systems to assist in their decision-making. To achieve this goal this study reviews the readiness of the hydrogen supply chain infrastructure within the LCR which highlights four sectors in the hydrogen economy i.e. production storage transportation and utilisation. Subsequently to offer the first-hand data in practice a multi-faceted approach that incorporates a broad array of stakeholders through the Triple Helix (TH) model is adopted. Special attention is given to hydrogen’s role in transforming heavy industry transportation and heating sectors supported by significant local projects like HyNet North West. During a roundtable discussion industry-academia-government stakeholders identify challenges in scaling up infrastructure and assess the economic and technological landscape for hydrogen adoption. To the best of our knowledge this will be the first regional academic endeavour to comprehensively examine the alignment between hydrogen supply and demand theory and practice. Based on a detailed SWOT analysis this study outlines the region’s strengths including established industrial clusters and technological capabilities in manufacturing. It also highlights weaknesses such as the high costs associated with emerging hydrogen technologies technological immaturity and gaps in necessary infrastructure. The opportunities presented by national policy incentives and growing global demand for sustainable energy solutions are considered alongside threats including regulatory complexities and the slow pace of public acceptance. This comprehensive examination not only maps the current landscape but also sets the stage for strategic interventions needed to realise hydrogen’s full potential within the LCR aiming to guide policymakers industry leaders and researchers in their efforts to foster a viable hydrogen economy. Moreover the findings offer valuable insights that can inform the development of hydrogen strategies in other regions and cities.

Export-oriented green-hydrogen projects (EOGH2P) are being developed in regions with optimal renewableenergy resources. Their reliance on economies of scale makes them land-intensive and object of spatial planning policies. However the impact of spatial planning on the development of EOGH2P remains underexplored. Drawing on the spatial planning and megaproject literatures the analysis of planning documents and expert interviews this paper analyzes how spatial planning influences the development of EOGH2P in Chile Namibia and South Africa. The three countries have developed different spatial planning approaches for EOGH2Ps and are analyzed by employing a comparative case-study design. Our findings reveal that Namibia pursues a restrictive approach South Africa a facilitative approach whereas Chile is shifting from a market-based to a restrictive approach. The respective approaches reflect different political priorities and stakeholder interests and imply diverse effects on the development of EOGH2Ps in terms of their number size shared infrastructure socioenvironmental impact and acceptance. This study underscores the need for well-designed spatial planning frameworks and provides insights for planners and stakeholders on their potential effects.

Creating a hydrogen market in Africa is a great opportunity to assist in the promotion of sustainable energy solutions and economic growth. This article addresses the legislation and regulations that need to be developed to facilitate growth in the hydrogen market and allow local green hydrogen offtake across the continent. By reviewing current policy and strategy within particular African countries and best practices globally from key hydrogen economies the review establishes compelling issues challenges and opportunities unique to Africa. The study identifies the immense potential in Africa for renewable energy and in particular for solar and wind as the foundation for the production of green hydrogen. It examines how effective policy frameworks can establish a vibrant hydrogen economy by bridging infrastructural gaps cost hurdles and regulatory barriers. The paper also addresses how local offtake contracts for green hydrogen can be used to stimulate economic diversification energy security and sustainable development. Policy advice is provided to assist African authorities and stakeholders in the deployment of enabling regulatory frameworks and the mobilization of funds. The paper contributes to global hydrogen energy discussions by introducing Africa as an eligible stakeholder in the emerging hydrogen economy and outlining prospects for its inclusion into regional and global energy supply chains.

The utilisation of renewable energy sources for hydrogen production is increasingly vital for ensuring the long-term sustainability of global energy systems. Currently the Sultanate of Oman is actively integrating renewable energy particularly through the deployment of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems as part of its ambitious targets for the forthcoming decades. Also Oman has target to achieve 1 million tonnes of green-H2 production annually. Leveraging Oman's abundant solar resources to produce green hydrogen and promote the clean transportation industry could significantly boost the country's sustainable energy sector. This paper outlines a standalone bifacial solar-powered system designed for large-scale green hydrogen (H2) production and storage to operate both a hydrogen refuelling station and an electric vehicle charging station in Sohar Oman. Using HOMER software three scenarios: PV/Hydrogen/Battery PV/Hydrogen PV/Battery systems were compared from a techno-economic perspective. Also the night-time operation (Battery/Hydrogen) was investigated. Varying cost of electricity were obtained depending on the system from $3.91/kWh to $0.0000565kWh while the bifacial PV/Hydrogen/Battery system emerged as the most efficient option boasting a unit cost of electricity (COE) of $3.91/kWh and a levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) value of $6.63/kg with net present cost 199M. This system aligns well with Oman's 2030 objectives with the capacity to generate 1 million tonnes of green-H2 annually. Additionally the findings show that the surplus electricity from the system could potentially cover over 30% of Oman's total energy consumption with zero harmful emissions. The implementation of this system promises to enhance Oman's economic and transportation industries by promoting the adoption of electric and fuel cell vehicles while reducing reliance on traditional energy sources.

The effects of climate change and reliance on fossil fuels in the Alps highlight the need for energy sufficiency improved efficiency and renewable energy deployment to support decarbonization goals. Hydrogen has gained attention as a versatile zero-emission energy carrier with the potential to drive cleaner energy solutions and sustainable tourism in Alpine regions. This study shares findings from a hydrogen survey conducted within the Interreg Alpine Space AMETHyST project which included questionnaires and roundtable discussions across Alpine territories. The survey explored hydrogen’s role in decarbonizing the Alps gathering insights from local stakeholders about their knowledge expertise needs and targets for hydrogen solutions. It also mapped existing hydrogen initiatives. Results revealed strong interest in hydrogen implementation with many territories eager to launch projects. However high investment and operational costs along with associated risks are key barriers. The absence of clear local hydrogen strategies and of a comprehensive regulatory framework also poses significant challenges. Incentivization schemes could facilitate initiatives and foster local hydrogen economies. The most promising application areas for hydrogen in the Alps are private and public mobility sectors. The residential sector particularly in tourist accommodations also presents potential. Regardless of specific uses developing renewable energy capacity and infrastructure is essential to create green hydrogen ecosystems that can store excess renewable energy from intermittent sources for later use.

Hydrogen (H2) used as feedstock (i.e. as raw material) in chemicals refineries and steel is currently produced from fossil fuels thus leading to significant carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. As these hard-to-abate sectors have limited electrification alternatives H2 produced by electrolysis offers a potential option for decarbonising them. Existing modelling analyses to date provide limited insights due to their predominant use of sector-specific static non-recursive and non-open models. This paper advances research by presenting a dynamic recursive open-access energy model using System Dynamics to study long-term systemic and environmental impacts of transitioning from fossil-based methods to electrolytic H2 production for industrial feedstock. The regional model adopts a bottom-up approach and is applied to the EU across five innovative decarbonisation scenarios including varying technological transition speeds and a paradigm-shift scenario (Degrowth). Our results indicate that assuming continued H2 demand trends and large-scale electrolytic H2 deployment by 2030 grid decarbonisation in the EU must accelerate to ensure green H2 for industrial feedstock emits less CO2 than fossil fuel methods doubling the current pace. Otherwise electrolytic H2 won’t offer clear CO2 reduction benefits until 2040. The most effective CO2 emission mitigation occurs in growth-oriented ambitious decarbonisation (− 91 %) and Degrowth (− 97 %) scenarios. From a sectoral perspective H2 use in steel industry achieves significantly greater decarbonisation (− 97 %). However meeting electricity demand for electrolytic H2 (700–1180 TWh in 2050 for 14–22.5 Mtons) in growth-oriented scenarios would require 25 %–42 % of the EU’s current electricity generation exceeding current renewable capacity and placing significant pressure on future power system development.