Denmark

The concerns over food security and protein scarcity driven by population increase and higher standards of living have pushed scientists toward finding new protein sources. A considerable proportion of resources and agricultural lands are currently dedicated to proteinaceous feed production to raise livestock and poultry for human consumption. The 1st generation of microbial protein (MP) came into the market as land-independent proteinaceous feed for livestock and aquaculture. However MP may be a less sustainable alternative to conventional feeds such as soybean meal and fishmeal because this technology currently requires natural gas and synthetic chemicals. These challenges have directed researchers toward the production of 2nd generation MP by integrating renewable energies anaerobic digestion nutrient recovery biogas cleaning and upgrading carbon-capture technologies and fermentation. The fermentation of methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) and hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria (HOB) i.e. two protein rich microorganisms has shown a great potential on the one hand to upcycle effluents from anaerobic digestion into protein rich biomass and on the other hand to be coupled to renewable energy systems under the concept of Power-to-X. This work compares various production routes for 2nd generation MP by reviewing the latest studies conducted in this context and introducing the state-of-the-art technologies hoping that the findings can accelerate and facilitate upscaling of MP production. The results show that 2nd generation MP depends on the expansion of renewable energies. In countries with high penetration of renewable electricity such as Nordic countries off-peak surplus electricity can be used within MP-industry by supplying electrolytic H2 which is the driving factor for both MOB and HOB-based MP production. However nutrient recovery technologies are the heart of the 2nd generation MP industry as they determine the process costs and quality of the final product. Although huge attempts have been made to date in this context some bottlenecks such as immature nutrient recovery technologies less efficient fermenters with insufficient gas-to-liquid transfer and costly electrolytic hydrogen production and storage have hindered the scale up of MP production. Furthermore further research into techno-economic feasibility and life cycle assessment (LCA) of coupled technologies is still needed to identify key points for improvement and thereby secure a sustainable production system.

Car park fires are known to be dangerous due to the risk of fast fire spread from one car to another. In general no fatalities are recorded in such fires but they may have a great cost in relation to damaged cars and structural repair. A very recent example is the Liverpool multi-storey car park fire from December 31 2017. It destroyed 1400 cars and parts of the building structure collapsed. This questions the validity of current design praxis of car parks. Literature studies assumes a 12 minutes period for the fire spread from one gasoline fuelled car to another. Statistical research and test from the European commission of steel structures states that in an open car park at most 3-4 vehicles are expected to be on fire at the same time.<br/>A number of investigations have been made concerning vehicles performance in car park fires but only a few are concerned with hydrogen-fuelled vehicles (HFV). It is therefore important to investigate how these new vehicles may contribute to potential fire spread scenario. The aim of the paper is to report the outcome of car park fire spread simulations involving common fuelled and hydrogen fuelled cars. The case study is based on a typical car park found in Denmark. The simulation applied numerical models implemented in the Fire Dynamic Simulator (FDS). In particular the focus of the study is on the influence of the parking distance to fire spread to adjacent vehicles in case a TPRD is activated during a car fire. The results help understanding whether different design rules should be envisaged for such structures or how a sufficient safety level can be obtained by ensuring specific parking condition for the hydrogen-fuelled cars.

Safety-barrier diagrams have proven to be a useful tool in documenting the safety measures taken to prevent incidents and accidents in process industry. In Denmark they are used to inform the authorities and the nonexperts on safety relevant issues as safety-barrier diagrams are less complex compared to fault trees and are easy to understand. Internationally there is a growing interest in this concept with the use of so-called “bowtie” diagrams which are a special case of safety-barrier diagrams. Especially during the on-going introduction of new hydrogen technologies or applications as e.g. hydrogen refueling stations this technique is considered a valuable tool to support the communication with authorities and other stakeholders during the permitting process. Another advantage of safety-barrier diagrams is that there is a direct focus on those system elements that need to be subject to safety management in terms of design and installation operational use inspection and monitoring and maintenance. Safety-barrier diagrams support both quantitative and qualitative or deterministic approaches. The paper will describe the background and syntax of the methodology and thereafter the use of such diagrams for hydrogen technologies are demonstrated.

Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEVs) are necessary to help reduce the emissions in the transportation sector which is responsible for 40% of overall greenhouse gas emissions. There are two types of ZEVs Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) Commercial Success of BEVs has been challenging thus far also due to limited range and very long charging duration. FCEVs using H2 infrastructure with SAE J2601 and J2799 standards can be consistently fuelled in a safe manner fast and resulting in a range similar to conventional vehicles. Specifically fuelling with SAE J2601 with the SAE J2799 enables FCEVs to fill with hydrogen in 3-5 minutes and to achieve a high State of Charge (SOC) resulting in 300+ mile range without exceeding the safety storage limits. Standardized H2 therefore gives an advantage to the customer over electric charging. SAE created this H2 fuelling protocol based on modelling laboratory and field tests. These SAE standards enable the first generation of commercial FCEVs and H2 stations to achieve a customer acceptable fueling similar to today's experience. This report details the advantages of hydrogen and the validation of H2 fuelling for the SAE standards.

Hydrogen technologies such as hydrogen fuelled vehicles and refuelling stations are being tested in practice in a number of projects (e.g. HyFleet-Cute and Whistler project) giving valuable information on the reliability and maintenance requirements. In order to establish refuelling stations the permitting authorities request qualitative and quantitative risk assessments to show the safety and acceptability in terms of failure frequencies and respective consequences. For new technologies not all statistical data can be established or are available in good quality causing assumptions and extrapolations to be made. Therefore the risk assessment results contain varying degrees of uncertainty as some components are well established while others are not. The paper describes a methodology to evaluate the degree of uncertainty in data for hydrogen applications based on the bias concept of the total probability and the NUSAP concept to quantify uncertainties of new not fully qualified hydrogen technologies and implications to risk management.

Any technical installation need appropriate safety barriers installed to prevent or mitigate any adverse effects concerning people property and environment. In this context a safety barrier is a series of elements each consisting of a technical system or human action that implement a planned barrier function to prevent control or mitigate the propagation of a condition or event into an undesired condition or event. This is also important for new technologies as hydrogen refuelling stations being operated at very high pressures up to 900bar. In order to establish the needed barriers a hazard identification of the installation has to be carried out to identify the possible hazardous events. In this study this identification was done using the generic layout of a future large hydrogen refuelling station that has been developed by the EU NoE HySafe. This was based on experiences with smaller scale refuelling stations that has been in operation for several years e.g. being used in the former CUTE and ECTOS projects. Using this approach the object of the study is to support activities to further improve the safety performance of future larger refuelling stations. This will again help to inform the authorities and the public to achieve a proper public awareness and to support building up a realistic risk and safety perception of the safety on such future refuelling stations. In the second step the hazardous events that may take place and the barriers installed to stop hazards and their escalation are analysed also using in-house developed software to model the barriers and to quantify their performance. The paper will present an overview and discuss the state-of-the-art of the barriers established in the generic refuelling station.

Hydrogen is currently gaining much attention as a possible future substitute for oil in the transport sector. Hydrogen is not a primary energy source but can be produced from other sources of energy. A future hydrogen economy will need the establishment of new infrastructures for producing storing distributing dispensing and using hydrogen. Hydrogen can be produced in large-scale centralized facilities or in smaller scale on-site systems. Large-scale production requires distribution in pipelines or trucks. A major challenge is to plan the new infrastructures to approach an even safer society regarding safe use of hydrogen. The paper will on the basis of some scenarios for hydrogen deployment highlight and evaluate safety aspects related to future hydrogen economy infrastructures.

The main goal of the project is to enable the wide adoption of H2NG (hydrogen in natural gas) blends by closing knowledge gaps regarding technical impacts on residential and commercial gas appliances. The project consortium will identify and recommend appropriate codes and standards that should be adapted to answer the needs and develop a strategy for addressing the challenges for new and existing appliances.<br/>This deliverable on market segmentation is part of work package 2 and provides a quantitative segmentation of the gas appliance market in terms of appliance population numbers. It therefore prepares the project partners to perform the subsequent selection of the most representative product types to be tested in the laboratories of the THyGA partners.<br/>The classification is developed to categorise appliances installed in the field based on available statistics calculation methods and estimations. As a result appliance populations are provided for each technology segment that draw a representative picture of the installed end-use appliances within the European Union in 2020.

Integral type models to describe stationary plumes and jets in cross-flows (wind) have been developed since about 1970. These models are widely used for risk analysis to describe the consequences of many different scenarios. Alternatively CFD codes are being applied but computational requirements still limit the number of scenarios that can be dealt with using CFD only. The integral models however are not suited to handle transient releases such as releases from pressurized equipment where the initially high release rate decreases rapidly with time. Further on gas ignition a second model is needed to describe the rapid combustion of the flammable part of the plume (flash fire) and a third model has to be applied for the remaining jet fire. The objective of this paper is to describe the first steps of the development of an integral-type model describing the transient development and decay of a jet of flammable gas after a release from a pressure container. The intention is to transfer the stationary models to a fully transient model capable to predict the maximum extension of short-duration high pressure jets. The model development is supported by conducting a set of transient ignited and unignited spontaneous releases at initial pressures between 25bar and 400bar. These data forms the basis for the presented model development approach.

Since the 1970s hydrogen has been considered as a possible energy carrier for the storage of renewable energy. The main focus has been on addressing the ultimate challenge: developing an environmentally friendly successor for gasoline. This very ambitious goal has not yet been fully reached as discussed in this review but a range of new lightweight hydrogen-containing materials has been discovered with fascinating properties. State-of-the-art and future perspectives for hydrogen-containing solids will be discussed with a focus on metal borohydrides which reveal significant structural flexibility and may have a range of new interesting properties combined with very high hydrogen densities.