Spain
Analysis of Power to Gas Technologies for Energy Intensive Industries in European Union
Jan 2023
Publication
Energy Intensive Industries (EII) are high users of energy and some of these facilities are extremely dependent on Natural Gas for processing heat production. In European countries where Natural Gas is mostly imported from external producers the increase in international Natural Gas prices is making it difficult for some industries to deliver the required financial results. Therefore they are facing complex challenges that could cause their delocalization in regions with lower energy costs. European countries lack on-site Natural Gas resources and the plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the industrial sector make it necessary to find an alternative. Many different processes cannot be electrified and in these cases synthetic methane is one of the solutions and also represents an opportunity to reduce external energy supply dependency. This study analyzes the current development of power-to-gas technological solutions that could be implemented in large industrial consumers to produce Synthetic Methane using Green Hydrogen as a raw source and using Renewable Energy electricity mainly produced with photovoltaic or wind energy. The study also reviews the triple bottom line impact and the current development status and associated costs for each key component of a power-to-gas plant and the requirements to be fulfilled in the coming years to develop a cost-competitive solution available for commercial use.
Optimal Sizing of Storage Elements for a Vehicle Based on Fuel Cells, Supercapacitors, and Batteries
Mar 2019
Publication
To achieve a vehicle-efficient energy management system an architecture composed of a PEM fuel cell as the main energy source and a hybrid storage system based on battery banks and supercapacitors is proposed. This paper introduces a methodology for the optimal component sizing aiming at minimizing the total cost achieving a cheaper system that can achieve the requirements of the speed profiles. The chosen vehicle is an urban transport bus which must meet the Buenos Aires Driving Cycle and the Manhattan Driving Cycle. The combination of batteries and supercapacitors allows a better response to the vehicle’s power demand since it combines the high energy density of the batteries with the high power density of the supercapacitors allowing the best absorption of energy coming from braking. In this way we address the rapid changes in power without reducing the global efficiency of the system. Optimum use of storage systems and fuel cell is analyzed through dynamic programming.
Comprehensive Analysis of the Combustion of Low Carbon Fuels (Hydrogen, Methane and Coke Oven Gas) in a Spark Ignition Engine through CFD Modeling
Nov 2021
Publication
The use of low carbon fuels (LCFs) in internal combustion engines is a promising alternative to reduce pollution while achieving high performance through the conversion of the high energy content of the fuels into mechanical energy. However optimizing the engine design requires deep knowledge of the complex phenomena involved in combustion that depend on the operating conditions and the fuel employed. In this work computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation tools have been used to get insight into the performance of a Volkswagen Polo 1.4L port-fuel injection spark ignition engine that has been fueled with three different LCFs coke oven gas (COG) a gaseous by-product of coke manufacture H2 and CH4. The comparison is made in terms of power pressure temperature heat release flame growth speed emissions and volumetric efficiency. Simulations in Ansys® Forte® were validated with experiments at the same operating conditions with optimal spark advance wide open throttle a wide range of engine speed (2000–5000 rpm) and air-fuel ratio (λ) between 1 and 2. A sensitivity analysis of spark timing has been added to assess its impact on combustion variables. COG with intermediate flame growth speed produced the greatest power values but with lower pressure and temperature values at λ = 1.5 reducing the emissions of NO and the wall heat transfer. The useful energy released with COG was up to 16.5% and 5.1% higher than CH4 and H2 respectively. At richer and leaner mixtures (λ = 1 and λ = 2) similar performances were obtained compared to CH4 and H2 combining advantages of both pure fuels and widening the λ operation range without abnormal combustion. Therefore suitable management of the operating conditions maximizes the conversion of the waste stream fuel energy into useful energy while limiting emissions.
A Review on CO2 Mitigation in the Iron and Steel Industry through Power to X Processes
Feb 2021
Publication
In this paper we present the first systematic review of Power to X processes applied to the iron and steel industry. These processes convert renewable electricity into valuable chemicals through an electrolysis stage that produces the final product or a necessary intermediate. We have classified them in five categories (Power to Iron Power to Hydrogen Power to Syngas Power to Methane and Power to Methanol) to compare the results of the different studies published so far gathering specific energy consumption electrolysis power capacity CO2 emissions and technology readiness level. We also present for the first time novel concepts that integrate oxy-fuel ironmaking and Power to Gas. Lastly we round the review off with a summary of the most important research projects on the topic including relevant data on the largest pilot facilities (2–6 MW).
Integration of Hydrogen and Synthetic Natural Gas within Legacy Power Generation Facilities
Jun 2022
Publication
Whilst various new technologies for power generation are continuously being evaluated the owners of almost-new facilities such as combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plants remain motivated to adapt these to new circumstances and avoid the balance-sheet financial impairments of underutilization. Not only are the owners reluctant to decommission the legacy CCGT assets but system operators value the inertia and flexibilities they contribute to a system becoming predominated with renewable generation. This analysis therefore focuses on the reinvestment cases for adapting CCGT to hydrogen (H2 ) synthetic natural gas (SNG) and/or retrofitted carbon capture and utilization systems (CCUS). Although H2 either by itself or as part of SNG has been evaluated attractively for longer-term electricity storage the business case for how it can be part of a hybrid legacy CCGT system has not been analyzed in a market context. This work compares the power to synthetic natural gas to power (PSNGP) adaptation with the simpler and less expensive power to hydrogen to power (P2HP) adaptation. Both the P2HP and PSNGP configurations are effective in terms of decarbonizations. The best results of the feasibility analysis for a UK application with low CCGT load factors (around 31%) were obtained for 100% H2 (P2HP) in the lower range of wholesale electricity prices (less than 178 GBP/MWh) but in the higher range of prices it would be preferable to use the PSNGP configuration with a low proportion of SNG (25%). If the CCGT load factor increased to 55% (the medium scenario) the breakeven profitability point between P2HP and PSNGP decreased to a market price of 145 GBP/MWh. Alternatively with the higher load factors (above 77%) satisfactory results were obtained for PSNGP using 50% SNG if with market prices above 185 GBP/MWh.
Sustainability Indicators for the Manufacturing and Use of a Fuel Cell Prototype and Hydrogen Storage for Portable Uses
Oct 2021
Publication
A sustainability assessment regarding the manufacturing process and the use of a new proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) specially designed for portable hydrogen applications is presented. The initial fuel cell prototype has been configured by taking into account exclusively technical issues. However a life cycle analysis considering environmental and socioeconomic impacts is crucial to improve the model to develop a more sustainable product. From the environ‐ mental perspective the durability of the system and its efficiency are key elements required to de‐ crease the potential overall impacts. High electricity consumption for manufacturing requires a commitment to the use of renewable energies due to the high current value of the projected impact of climate change (42.5 tonnes of CO2 eq). From the socioeconomic point of view the dependence of imported components required for the synthesis of some materials displaces the effects of value added and employment in Spain potentially concentrating the largest impact on countries such as Singapore Japan and the UK whereas the cell assembly would have a greater benefit for the country of fabrication. These results provide a basis for new research strategies since they can be considered standard values for improving future upgrades of the fuel cell in terms of sustainability.
Assessing the Life-Cycle Performance of Hydrogen Production via Biofuel Reforming in Europe
Jun 2015
Publication
Currently hydrogen is mainly produced through steam reforming of natural gas. However this conventional process involves environmental and energy security concerns. This has led to the development of alternative technologies for (potentially) green hydrogen production. In this work the environmental and energy performance of biohydrogen produced in Europe via steam reforming of glycerol and bio-oil is evaluated from a life-cycle perspective and contrasted with that of conventional hydrogen from steam methane reforming. Glycerol as a by-product from the production of rapeseed biodiesel and bio-oil from the fast pyrolysis of poplar biomass are considered. The processing plants are simulated in Aspen Plus® to provide inventory data for the life cycle assessment. The environmental impact potentials evaluated include abiotic depletion global warming ozone layer depletion photochemical oxidant formation land competition acidification and eutrophication. Furthermore the cumulative (total and non-renewable) energy demand is calculated as well as the corresponding renewability scores and life-cycle energy balances and efficiencies of the biohydrogen products. In addition to quantitative evidence of the (expected) relevance of the feedstock and impact categories considered results show that poplar-derived bio-oil could be a suitable feedstock for steam reforming in contrast to first-generation bioglycerol.
Solar Hydrogen Fuel Generation from Wastewater—Beyond Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: A Perspective
Oct 2022
Publication
Green hydrogen—a carbon-free renewable fuel—has the capability to decarbonise a variety of sectors. The generation of green hydrogen is currently restricted to water electrolysers. The use of freshwater resources and critical raw materials however limits their use. Alternative water splitting methods for green hydrogen generation via photocatalysis and photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) have been explored in the past few decades; however their commercial potential still remains unexploited due to the high hydrogen generation costs. Novel PEC-based simultaneous generation of green hydrogen and wastewater treatment/high-value product production is therefore seen as an alternative to conventional water splitting. Interestingly the organic/inorganic pollutants in wastewater and biomass favourably act as electron donors and facilitate the dual-functional process of recovering green hydrogen while oxidising the organic matter. The generation of green hydrogen through the dual-functional PEC process opens up opportunities for a “circular economy”. It further enables the end-of-life commodities to be reused recycled and resourced for a better life-cycle design while being economically viable for commercialisation. This review brings together and critically analyses the recent trends towards simultaneous wastewater treatment/biomass reforming while generating hydrogen gas by employing the PEC technology. We have briefly discussed the technical challenges associated with the tandem PEC process new avenues techno-economic feasibility and future directions towards achieving net neutrality.
Overview of First Outcomes of PNR Project HYTUNNEL-CS
Sep 2021
Publication
Dmitry Makarov,
Donatella Cirrone,
Volodymyr V. Shentsov,
Sergii Kashkarov,
Vladimir V. Molkov,
Z. Xu,
Mike Kuznetsov,
Alexandros G. Venetsanos,
Stella G. Giannissi,
Ilias C. Tolias,
Knut Vaagsaether,
André Vagner Gaathaug,
Mark R. Pursell,
W. M. Rattigan,
Frank Markert,
Luisa Giuliani,
L.S. Sørensen,
A. Bernad,
Mercedes Sanz Millán,
U. Kummer,
C. Brauner,
Paola Russo,
J. van den Berg,
F. de Jong,
Tom Van Esbroeck,
M. Van De Veire,
D. Bouix,
Gilles Bernard-Michel,
Sergey Kudriakov,
Etienne Studer,
Domenico Ferrero,
Joachim Grüne and
G. Stern
The paper presents the first outcomes of the experimental numerical and theoretical studies performed in the funded by Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH2 JU) project HyTunnel-CS. The project aims to conduct pre-normative research (PNR) to close relevant knowledge gaps and technological bottlenecks in the provision of safety of hydrogen vehicles in underground transportation systems. Pre normative research performed in the project will ultimately result in three main outputs: harmonised recommendations on response to hydrogen accidents recommendations for inherently safer use of hydrogen vehicles in underground traffic systems and recommendations for RCS. The overall concept behind this project is to use inter-disciplinary and inter-sectoral prenormative research by bringing together theoretical modelling and experimental studies to maximise the impact. The originality of the overall project concept is the consideration of hydrogen vehicle and underground traffic structure as a single system with integrated safety approach. The project strives to develop and offer safety strategies reducing or completely excluding hydrogen-specific risks to drivers passengers public and first responders in case of hydrogen vehicle accidents within the currently available infrastructure.
Analysis of the Use of Recycled Aluminum to Generate Green Hydrogen in an Electric Bicycle
Feb 2023
Publication
This article proposes using recycled aluminum generating hydrogen in situ at low pressure to power a 250 W electric bicycle with a fuel cell (FC) to increase the average speed and autonomy compared to a conventional electric bicycle with a battery. To generate hydrogen the aluminum–water reaction with a 6 M NaOH solution is used as a catalyst. This article details the parts of the generation system the electronic configuration used the aluminum- and reagent-loading procedure and the by-products obtained as well as the results of the operation without pedaling with a resistance equivalent to a flat terrain and at maximum power of the accelerator for one and two loads of about 100 g of aluminum each. This allows us to observe different hybrid strategies with a low-capacity battery in each case. The goal is to demonstrate that it is possible to store energy in a long-lasting transportable low-pressure and sustainable manner using recycled-aluminum test tubes and to apply this to mobility
Novel Use of Green Hydrogen Fuel Cell-Based Combined Heat and Power Systems to Reduce Primary Energy Intake and Greenhouse Emissions in the Building Sector
Feb 2021
Publication
Achieving European climate neutrality by 2050 requires further efforts not only from the industry and society but also from policymakers. The use of high-efficiency cogeneration facilities will help to reduce both primary energy consumption and CO2 emissions because of the increase in overall efficiency. Fuel cell-based cogeneration technologies are relevant solutions to these points for small- and microscale units. In this research an innovative and new fuel cell-based cogeneration plant is studied and its performance is compared with other cogeneration technologies to evaluate the potential reduction degree in energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Four energy consumption profile datasets have been generated from real consumption data of different dwellings located in the Mediterranean coast of Spain to perform numerical simulations in different energy scenarios according to the fuel used in the cogeneration. Results show that the fuel cell-based cogeneration systems reduce primary energy consumption and CO2 emissions in buildings to a degree that depends on the heat-to-power ratio of the consumer. Primary energy consumption varies from 40% to 90% of the original primary energy consumption when hydrogen is produced from natural gas reforming process and from 5% to 40% of the original primary energy consumption if the cogeneration is fueled with hydrogen obtained from renewable energy sources. Similar reduction degrees are achieved in CO2 emissions.
AMHYCO Project - Towards Advanced Accident Guidelines for Hydrogen Safety in Nuclear Power Plants
Sep 2021
Publication
Severe accidents in nuclear power plants are potentially dangerous to both humans and the environment. To prevent and/or mitigate the consequences of these accidents it is paramount to have adequate accident management measures in place. During a severe accident combustible gases — especially hydrogen and carbon monoxide — can be released in significant amounts leading to a potential explosion risk in the nuclear containment building. These gases need to be managed to avoid threatening the containment integrity which can result in the releases of radioactive material into the environment. The main objective of the AMHYCO project is to propose innovative enhancements in the way combustible gases are managed in case of a severe accident in currently operating reactors. For this purpose the AMHYCO project pursues three specific activities including experimental investigations of relevant phenomena related to hydrogen / carbon monoxide combustion and mitigation with PARs (Passive Autocatalytic Recombiners) improvement of the predictive capabilities of analysis tools used for explosion hazard evaluation inside the reactor containment as well as enhancement of the Severe Accident Management Guidelines (SAMGs) with respect to combustible gases risk management based on theoretical and experimental results. Officially launched on 1 October 2020 AMHYCO is an EU-funded Horizon 2020 project that will last 4 years from 2020 to 2024. This international project consists of 12 organizations (six from European countries and one from Canada) and is led by the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM). AMHYCO will benefit from the worldwide experts in combustion science accident management and nuclear safety in its Advisory Board. The paper will give an overview of the work program and planned outcome of the project.
Hydrogen as an Energy Vector to Optimize the Energy Exploitation of a Self-consumption Solar Photovoltaic Facility in a Dwelling House
Nov 2019
Publication
Solar photovoltaic (PV) plants coupled with storage for domestic self-consumption purposes seem to be a promising technology in the next years as PV costs have decreased significantly and national regulations in many countries promote their installation in order to relax the energy requirements of power distribution grids. However electrochemical storage systems are still unaffordable for many domestic users and thus the advantages of self-consumption PV systems are reduced. Thus in this work the adoption of hydrogen systems as energy vectors between a PV plant and the energy user is proposed. As a preliminary study in this work the design of a PV and hydrogen-production self-consumption plant for a single dwelling is described. Then a technical and economic feasibility study conducted by modeling the facility within the Homer Energy Pro energy systems analysis tool is reported. The proposed system will be able to provide back not only electrical energy but also thermal energy through a fuel cell or refined water covering the fundamental needs of the householders (electricity heat or cooling and water). Results show that although the proposed system effectively increases the energy local use of the PV production and reduces significantly the energy injections or demands into/from the power grid avoiding power grid congestions and increasing the nano-grid resilience operation and maintenance costs may reduce its economic attractiveness for a single dwelling.
The Role of Hydrogen in Heavy Transport to Operate within Planetary Boundaries
Jul 2021
Publication
Green hydrogen i.e. produced from renewable resources is attracting attention as an alternative fuel for the future of heavy road transport and long-distance driving. However the benefits linked to zero pollution at the usage stage can be overturned when considering the upstream processes linked to the raw materials and energy requirements. To better understand the global environmental implications of fuelling heavy transport with hydrogen we quantified the environmental impacts over the full life cycle of hydrogen use in the context of the Planetary Boundaries (PBs). The scenarios assessed cover hydrogen from biomass gasification (with and without carbon capture and storage [CCS]) and electrolysis powered by wind solar bioenergy with CCS nuclear and grid electricity. Our results show that the current diesel-based-heavy transport sector is unsustainable due to the transgression of the climate change-related PBs (exceeding standalone by two times the global climate-change budget). Hydrogen-fuelled heavy transport would reduce the global pressure on the climate change-related PBs helping the transport sector to stay within the safe operating space (i.e. below one-third of the global ecological budget in all the scenarios analysed). However the best scenarios in terms of climate change which are biomass-based would shift burdens to the biosphere integrity and nitrogen flow PBs. In contrast burden shifting in the electrolytic scenarios would be negligible with hydrogen from wind electricity emerging as an appealing technology despite attaining higher carbon emissions than the biomass routes
Assessing the Prospective Environmental Performance of Hydrogen from High Temperature Electrolysis Coupled with Concentrated Solar Power
Jul 2022
Publication
Hydrogen is currently being promoted because of its advantages as an energy vector its potential 12 to decarbonise the economy and strategical implications in terms of energy security. Hydrogen 13 from high-temperature electrolysis coupled with concentrated solar power (CSP) is especially 14 interesting since it enhances the last two aspects and could benefit from significant technological 15 progress in the coming years. However there is a lack of studies assessing its future 16 environmental performance. This work fills this gap by carrying out a prospective life cycle 17 assessment based on the expected values of key performance parameters in 2030. The results 18 show that parabolic trough CSP coupled with a solid oxide electrolyser is a promising solution 19 under environmental aspects. It leads to a prospective hydrogen carbon footprint (1.85 kg CO2 20 eq/kg H2) which could be classified as low-carbon according to current standards. The 21 benchmarking study for the year 2030 shows that the assessed system significantly decreases the 22 hydrogen carbon footprint compared to future hydrogen from steam methane reforming (81% 23 reduction) and grid electrolysis (51%) even under a considerable penetration of renewable energy 24 sources.
Techno-economic Modelling of Water Electrolysers in the Range of Several MW to Provide Grid Services While Generating Hydrogen for Different Applications: A Case Study in Spain Applied to Mobility with FCEVs
Jun 2019
Publication
The use of hydrogen as energy carrier is a promising option to decarbonize both energy and transport sectors. This paper presents an advanced techno-economic model for calculation of optimal dispatch of large-scale multi MW electrolysis plants in order to obtain a more accurate evaluation of the feasibility of business cases related to the supply of this fuel for different end uses combined with grid services' provision. The model is applied to the Spanish case using different scenarios to determine the minimum demand required from the FCEV market so that electrolysis facilities featuring several MW result in profitable business cases. The results show that grid services contribute to the profitability of hydrogen production for mobility given a minimum but considerable demand from FCEV fleets.
Alkaline Electrolysis for Hydrogen Production at Sea: Perspectives on Economic Performance
May 2023
Publication
Alkaline electrolysis is already a proven technology on land with a high maturity level and good economic performance. However at sea little is known about its economic performance toward hydrogen production. Alkaline electrolysis units operate with purified water to split its molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Purified water and especially that sourced from the sea has a variable cost that ultimately depends on its quality. However the impurities present in that purified water have a deleterious effect on the electrolyte of alkaline electrolysis units that cause them to drop their energy efficiency. This in turn implies a source of economic losses resulting from the cost of electricity. In addition at sea there are various options regarding the electrolyte management of which the cost depends on various factors. All these factors ultimately impact on the levelized cost of the produced hydrogen. This article aims to shed some light on the economic performance of alkaline electrolysis units operating under sea conditions highlighting the knowledge gaps in the literature and initiating a debate in the field.
Optimal Dispatch Model for PV-electrolysis Plants in Self-consumption Regime to Produce Green Hydrogen: A Spanish Case Study
May 2022
Publication
The production of green hydrogen from renewable energy by means of water electrolysis is a promising approach to support energy sector decarbonization. This paper presents a techno-economic model of plants with PV sources connected to electrolysis in self-consumption regime that considers the dynamics of electrolysis systems. The model calculates the optimal hourly dispatch of the electrolysis system including the operational states (production standby and idle) the load factor in production and the energy imports and exports to the electricity grid. Results indicate that the model is a useful decision support tool to operate electrolysis plants connected to PV plants in self-consumption regimes with the target of reducing hydrogen production costs.
Assessing the Feasibility of Hydrogen and Electric Buses for Urban Public Transportation using Rooftop Integrated Photovoltaic Energy in Cuenca Ecuador
Jul 2023
Publication
A main restriction of renewables from intermittent sources is the mismatch between energy resource availability and energy requirements especially when extensive power plants are producing at their highest potential causing huge energy surpluses. In these cases excess power must be stored or curtailed. One alternative is increasing urban solar potential which could be integrated to feed electric buses directly or alternatively through hydrogen (H2 ) as an energy vector. H2 from renewable electricity can be stored and used directly or through fuel cells. This study aims to determine the H2 capability that could be achieved when integrating large-scale photovoltaic (PV) generation in urban areas. This analysis was carried out by determining the PV energy potentially generated by installing PV in Cuenca City downtown (Ecuador). Cuenca is in the process of adopting renewal of the public transport vehicle fleet introducing a new model with an electric tram main network combined with “clean type buses”. The conventional diesel urban transport could be replaced establishing a required vehicle fleet of 475 buses spread over 29 routes emitting 112 tons of CO2 and burning 11175 gallons of diesel daily. Between the main findings we concluded that the electricity that could be produced in the total roof area exceeds the actual demand in the study area by 5.5 times. Taking into account the energy surplus it was determined that the available PV power will cover from 97% to 127% of the total demand necessary to mobilize the city bus fleet. The novelty of this work is the proposal of a combined methodology to find the potential to feed urban transport with urban solar power in cities close to the equatorial line.
Risk Management of Energy Communities with Hydrogen Production and Storage Technologies
Jul 2023
Publication
The distributed integration of renewable energy sources plays a central role in the decarbonization of economies. In this regard energy communities arise as a promising entity to coordinate groups of proactive consumers (prosumers) and incentivize investment on clean technologies. However the uncertain nature of renewable energy generation residential loads and trading tariffs pose important challenges both at the operational and economic levels. We study how this management can be directly undertaken by an arbitrageur that making use of an adequate price-based demand response (real-time pricing) system serves as an intermediary with the central electricity market to coordinate different types of prosumers under risk aversion. In particular we consider a sequential futures and spot market where the aggregated shortage or excess of energy within the community can be traded. We aim to study the impact of new hydrogen production and storage technologies on community operation and risk management. These interactions are modeled as a game theoretical setting in the form of a stochastic two-stage bilevel optimization problem which is later reformulated without approximation as a single-level mixed-integer linear problem (MILP). An extensive set of numerical experiments based on real data is performed to study the operation of the energy community under different technical and economical conditions. Results indicate that the optimal involvement in futures and spot markets is highly conditioned by the community’s risk aversion and self-sufficiency levels. Moreover the external hydrogen market has a direct effect on the community’s internal price-tariff system and depending on the market conditions may worsen the utility of individual prosumers.
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