Japan
Numerical Study of Hydrogen Addition Effects on Aluminum Particle Combustion
Sep 2021
Publication
In this study the combustion of submicron-sized Al particles in air was studied numerically with a particular focus on the effect of hydrogen addition. Oxidation of the Al particles and the interaction with hydrogen-related intermediates were considered by regarding them as liquid-phase molecules initially. Zero- and One-dimensional numerical simulations were then carried out to investigate the effect of the hydrogen addition on fundamental combustion characteristics of the Al flame by calculating properties such as ignition delay time and flame speed. Our attention was paid to how the hydrogen chemistry is coupled with the Al oxidation process. Numerical results show that the hydrogen addition generally reduces the reactivity of Al such that the flame speed and temperature decrease while it can greatly shorten ignition delay times of the Al flame depending on initial temperatures.
Significance of Hydrogen as Economic and Environmentally Friendly Fuel
Nov 2021
Publication
The major demand of energy in today’s world is fulfilled by the fossil fuels which are not renewable in nature and can no longer be used once exhausted. In the beginning of the 21st century the limitation of the fossil fuels continually growing energy demand and growing impact of greenhouse gas emissions on the environment were identified as the major challenges with current energy infrastructure all over the world. The energy obtained from fossil fuel is cheap due to its established infrastructure; however these possess serious issues as mentioned above and cause bad environmental impact. Therefore renewable energy resources are looked to as contenders which may fulfil most energy requirements. Among them hydrogen is considered as the most environmentally friendly fuel. Hydrogen is clean sustainable fuel and it has promise as a future energy carrier. It also has the ability to substitute the present energy infrastructure which is based on fossil fuel. This is seen and projected as a solution for the above-mentioned problems including rise in global temperature and environmental degradation. Environmental and economic aspects are the important factors to be considered to establish hydrogen infrastructure. This article describes the various aspects of hydrogen including production storage and applications with a focus on fuel cell based electric vehicles. Their environmental as well as economic aspects are also discussed herein.
Novel Ways for Hydrogen Production Based on Methane Steam and Dry Reforming Integrated with Carbon Capture
Sep 2022
Publication
The combination of methane steam reforming technology and CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage) technology has great potential to reduce carbon emissions in the process of hydrogen production. Different from the traditional idea of capturing CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) in the exhaust gas with high work consumption this study simultaneously focuses on CO2 separation from fuel gas and recycling. A new hydrogen production system is developed by methane steam reforming coupled with carbon capture. Separated and captured high-purity carbon dioxide could be recycled for methane dry reforming; on this basis a new methane-dry-reforming-driven hydrogen production system with a carbon dioxide reinjection unit is innovatively proposed. In this study the energy flow and irreversible loss in the two newly developed systems are analyzed in detail through energy and exergy balance analysis. The advantages are explored from the perspective of hydrogen production rate natural gas consumption and work consumption. In addition in consideration of the integrated performance an optimal design analysis was conducted. In terms of hydrogen production the new system based on dry reforming is better with an advantage of 2.41%; however it is worth noting that the comprehensive thermal performance of the new steam reforming system is better reaching 10.95%. This study provides new ideas for hydrogen production from a low carbon emission perspective and also offers a new direction for future distributed energy system integration.
Design of a Hydrogen Production System Considering Energy Consumption, Water Consumption, CO2 Emissions and Cost
Oct 2022
Publication
CO2 emissions associated with hydrogen production can be reduced replacing steam methane reforming with electrolysis using renewable electricity with a trade-off of increasing energy consumption water consumption and cost. In this research a linear programming optimization model of a hydrogen production system that considers simultaneously energy consumption water consumption CO2 emissions and cost on a cradle-to-gate basis was developed. The model was used to evaluate the impact of CO2 intensity on the optimum design of a hydrogen production system for Japan considering different stakeholders’ priorities. Hydrogen is produced using steam methane reforming and electrolysis. Electricity sources include grid wind solar photovoltaic geothermal and hydro. Independent of the stakeholders’ priorities steam methane reforming dominates hydrogen production for cradle-to-gate CO2 intensities larger than 9 kg CO2/kg H2 while electrolysis using renewable electricity dominates for lower cradle-to-gate CO2 intensities. Reducing the cradle-to-gate CO2 intensity increases energy consumption water consumption and specific cost of hydrogen production. For a cradle-to-gate CO2 intensity of 0 kg CO2/kg H2 the specific cost of hydrogen production varies between 8.81 and 13.6 USD/kg H2; higher than the specific cost of hydrogen production targeted by the Japanese government in 2030 of 30 JPY/Nm3 3.19 USD/kg H2.
A Historical Analysis of Hydrogen Economy Research, Development, and Expectations, 1972 to 2020
Jan 2023
Publication
Global climate change concerns have pushed international governmental actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by adopting cleaner technologies hoping to transition to a more sustainable society. The hydrogen economy is one potential long-term option for enabling deep decarbonization for the future energy landscape. Progress towards an operating hydrogen economy is discouragingly slow despite global efforts to accelerate it. There are major mismatches between the present situation surrounding the hydrogen economy and previous proposed milestones that are far from being reached. The overall aim of this study is to understand whether there has been significant real progress in the achievement of a hydrogen economy or whether the current interest is overly exaggerated (hype). This study uses bibliometric analysis and content analysis to historically map the hydrogen economy’s development from 1972 to 2020 by quantifying and analyzing three sets of interconnected data. Findings indicate that interest in the hydrogen economy has significantly progressed over the past five decades based on the growing numbers of academic publications media coverage and projects. However various endogenous and exogenous factors have influenced the development of the hydrogen economy and created hype at different points in time. The consolidated results explore the changing trends and how specific events or actors have influenced the development of the hydrogen economy with their agendas the emergence of hype cycles and the expectations of a future hydrogen economy.
Solid-State Hydrogen Fuel by PSII–Chitin Composite and Application to Biofuel Cell
Dec 2021
Publication
Biomaterials attract a lot of attention as next-generation materials. Especially in the energy field fuel cells based on biomaterials can further develop clean next-generation energy and are focused on with great interest. In this study solid-state hydrogen fuel (PSII–chitin composite) composed of the photosystem II (PSII) and hydrated chitin composite was successfully created. Moreover a biofuel cell consisting of the electrolyte of chitin and the hydrogen fuel using the PSII– chitin composite was fabricated and its characteristic feature was investigated. We found that proton conductivity in the PSII–chitin composite increases by light irradiation. This result indicates that protons generate in the PSII–chitin composite by light irradiation. It was also found that the biofuel cell using the PSII–chitin composite hydrogen fuel and the chitin electrolyte exhibits the maximum power density of 0.19 mW/cm2 . In addition this biofuel cell can drive an LED lamp. These results indicate that the solid-state biofuel cell based on the bioelectrolyte “chitin” and biofuel “the PSII–chitin composite” can be realized. This novel solid-state fuel cell will be helpful to the fabrication of next-generation energy.
Environmental and Socio-Economic Analysis of Naphtha Reforming Hydrogen Energy Using Input-Output Tables: A Case Study from Japan
Aug 2017
Publication
Comprehensive risk assessment across multiple fields is required to assess the potential utility of hydrogen energy technology. In this research we analyzed environmental and socio-economic effects during the entire life cycle of a hydrogen energy system using input-output tables. The target system included hydrogen production by naphtha reforming transportation to hydrogen stations and FCV (Fuel Cell Vehicle) refilling. The results indicated that 31% 44% and 9% of the production employment and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission effects respectively during the manufacturing and construction stages were temporary. During the continuous operation and maintenance stages these values were found to be 69% 56% and 91% respectively. The effect of naphtha reforming was dominant in GHG emissions and the effect of electrical power input on the entire system was significant. Production and employment had notable effects in both the direct and indirect sectors including manufacturing (pumps compressors and chemical machinery) and services (equipment maintenance and trade). This study used data to introduce a life cycle perspective to environmental and socio-economic analysis of hydrogen energy systems and the results will contribute to their comprehensive risk assessment in the future.
Solar Hydrogen Fuel Generation from Wastewater—Beyond Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: A Perspective
Oct 2022
Publication
Green hydrogen—a carbon-free renewable fuel—has the capability to decarbonise a variety of sectors. The generation of green hydrogen is currently restricted to water electrolysers. The use of freshwater resources and critical raw materials however limits their use. Alternative water splitting methods for green hydrogen generation via photocatalysis and photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) have been explored in the past few decades; however their commercial potential still remains unexploited due to the high hydrogen generation costs. Novel PEC-based simultaneous generation of green hydrogen and wastewater treatment/high-value product production is therefore seen as an alternative to conventional water splitting. Interestingly the organic/inorganic pollutants in wastewater and biomass favourably act as electron donors and facilitate the dual-functional process of recovering green hydrogen while oxidising the organic matter. The generation of green hydrogen through the dual-functional PEC process opens up opportunities for a “circular economy”. It further enables the end-of-life commodities to be reused recycled and resourced for a better life-cycle design while being economically viable for commercialisation. This review brings together and critically analyses the recent trends towards simultaneous wastewater treatment/biomass reforming while generating hydrogen gas by employing the PEC technology. We have briefly discussed the technical challenges associated with the tandem PEC process new avenues techno-economic feasibility and future directions towards achieving net neutrality.
Techno-Economic Analysis of Solar Thermal Hydrogen Production in the United Arab Emirates
Oct 2022
Publication
Solar thermal technology can provide the United Arab Emirates and the Middle East region with abundant clean electricity to mitigate the rising levels of carbon dioxide and satisfy future demand. Hydrogen can play a key role in the large-scale application of solar thermal technologies such as concentrated solar plants in the region by storing the surplus electricity and exporting it to needed countries for profit placing the Middle East and the United Arab Emirates as major future green hydrogen suppliers. However a hydrogen supply chain comparison between hydrogen from CSP and other renewable under the UAE’s technical and economic conditions for hydrogen export is yet to be fully considered. Therefore in this study we provide a techno-economic analysis for well-to-ship solar hydrogen supply chain that compares CSP and PV technologies with a solid oxide water electrolyzer for hydrogen production assuming four different hydrogen delivery pathways based on the location of electrolyzer and source of electricity assuming the SOEC can be coupled to the CSP plant when placed at the same site or provided with electric heaters when placed at PV plant site or port sites. The results show that the PV plant achieves a lower levelized cost of electricity than that of the CSP plant with 5.08 ¢/kWh and 8.6 ¢/kWh respectively. Hydrogen production results show that the scenario where SOEC is coupled to the CSP plant is the most competitive scenario as it achieves the payback period in the shortest period compared to the other scenarios and also provides higher revenues and a cheaper LCOH of 7.85 $/kgH2.
Thermodynamic Analysis of Hydrogen Utilization as Alternative Fuel in Cement Production
Jul 2022
Publication
Growing attention to the environmental aspect has urged the effort to reduce CO2 emission as one of the greenhouse gases. The cement industry is one of the biggest CO2 emitters in this world. Alternative fuel is one of the challenging issues in cement production due to the limited fossil fuel resources and environmental concerns. Meanwhile hydrogen (H2) has been reported as a promising non-carbon fuel with ammonia (NH3) as the main candidate for chemical storage methods. In this work an integrated system of cement production with an alternative H2-based fuel is proposed consisting of the dehydrogenation process of NH3 and the H2 combustion to provide the required thermal energy for clinker production. Different catalysts are employed and evaluated to analyze the specific energy input (SEI). The result shows that the conversion rate strongly determines the SEI with minimum SEI (3829.8 MJ t-clinker-1 ) achieved by Ni-Pt-based catalyst at a reaction temperature of 600 ºC. Compared to the conventional fuel of coal the H2-based integrated cement production system shows a significant decrease of 44% in CO2 emission due to carbon-free combustion using H2 as the fuel. The current study on the proposed integrated system of H2-based cement production also provides an initial thermodynamic analysis and basic observation for the adoption of non-carbon-based H2 including the storage system of NH3 in the cement production process.
CFD Simulation of Pressure Reduction Inside Large-scale Liquefied Hydrogen Tank
Sep 2021
Publication
Building the international hydrogen supply chain requires the large-scale liquefied hydrogen(LH2) carrier. During shipping LH2 with LH2 Carrier the tank is pressurized by LH2 evaporation due to heat ingress from outside. Before unloading LH2 at the receiving terminal reducing the tank pressure is essential for the safe tank operation. However pressure reduction might cause flashing leading to rapid vaporization of liquefied hydrogen liquid leakage. Moreover it was considered that pressure recovery phenomenon which was not preferred in terms of tank pressure management occurred at the beginning of pressure reduction. Hence the purpose of our research is to clarify the phenomenon inside the cargo tank during pressure reduction. The CFD analysis of the pressure reduction phenomenon was conducted with the VOF based in-house CFD code utilizing the C-CUP scheme combined with the hybrid Level Set and MARS method. In our previous research the pressure reduction experiments with the 30 m³ LH2 tank were simulated and the results showed that the pressure recovery was caused by the boiling delay and the tank pressure followed the saturation pressure after the liquid was fully stirred. In this paper the results were re-evaluated in terms of temperature. While pressure reduction was dominant the temperature of vapor-liquid interface decreased. Once the boiling bubble stirred the interface its temperature reached the saturation temperature after pressure recovery occurred. Moreover it was found that the liquid temperature during pressure reduction could not be measured because of the boiling from the wall of the thermometer. The CFD analysis on pressure reduction of 1250 m³ tank for the LH2 Carrier was also very could occur in the case of the 1250 m³ tank in a certain condition. These results provide new insight into the development of the LH2 carrier.
A Production and Delivery Model of Hydrogen from Solar Thermal Energy in the United Arab Emirates
May 2022
Publication
Hydrogen production from surplus solar electricity as energy storage for export purposes can push towards large-scale application of solar energy in the United Arab Emirates and the Middle East region; this region’s properties of high solar irradiance and vast empty lands provide a good fit for solar technologies such as concentrated solar power and photovoltaics. However a thorough comparison between the two solar technologies as well as investigating the infrastructure of the United Arab Emirates for a well-to-ship hydrogen pathway is yet to be fully carried out. Therefore in this study we aim to provide a full model for solar hydrogen production and delivery by evaluating the potential of concentrated solar power and photovoltaics in the UAE then comparing two different pathways for hydrogen delivery based on the location of hydrogen production sites. A Solid Oxide Cell Electrolyzer (SOEC) is used for technical comparison while the shortest routes for hydrogen transport were analyzed using Geographical Information System (GIS). The results show that CSP technology coupled with SOEC is the most favorable pathway for large-scale hydrogen from solar energy production in the UAE for export purposes. Although PV has a slightly higher electricity potential compared to CSP around 42 GWh/km2 to 41.1 GWh/km2 respectively CSP show the highest productions rates of over 6 megatons of hydrogen when the electrolyzer is placed at the same site as the CSP plant while PV generates 5.15 megatons when hydrogen is produced at the same site with PV plants; meanwhile hydrogen from PV and CSP shows similar levels of 4.8 and 4.6 megatons of hydrogen respectively when electrolyzers are placed at port sites. Even considering the constraints in the UAE’s infrastructure and suggesting new shorter electrical transmission lines that could save up to 0.1 megatons of hydrogen in the second pathway production at the same site with CSP is still the most advantageous scenario.
Techno-Economic Analysis of a Novel Hydrogen-Based Hybrid Renewable Energy System for Both Grid-Tied and Off-Grid Power Supply in Japan: The Case of Fukushima Prefecture
Jun 2020
Publication
After the Great East Japan Earthquake energy security and vulnerability have become critical issues facing the Japanese energy system. The integration of renewable energy sources to meet specific regional energy demand is a promising scenario to overcome these challenges. To this aim this paper proposes a novel hydrogen-based hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) in which hydrogen fuel can be produced using both the methods of solar electrolysis and supercritical water gasification (SCWG) of biomass feedstock. The produced hydrogen is considered to function as an energy storage medium by storing renewable energy until the fuel cell converts it to electricity. The proposed HRES is used to meet the electricity demand load requirements for a typical household in a selected residential area located in Shinchi-machi in Fukuoka prefecture Japan. The techno-economic assessment of deploying the proposed systems was conducted using an integrated simulation-optimization modeling framework considering two scenarios: (1) minimization of the total cost of the system in an off-grid mode and (2) maximization of the total profit obtained from using renewable electricity and selling surplus solar electricity to the grid considering the feed-in-tariff (FiT) scheme in a grid-tied mode. As indicated by the model results the proposed HRES can generate about 47.3 MWh of electricity in all scenarios which is needed to meet the external load requirement in the selected study area. The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of the system in scenarios 1 and 2 was estimated at 55.92 JPY/kWh and 56.47 JPY/kWh respectively
Novel Biofuel Cell Using Hydrogen Generation of Photosynthesis
Nov 2020
Publication
Energies based on biomaterials attract a lot of interest as next-generation energy because biomaterials are environmentally friendly materials and abundant in nature. Fuel cells are also known as the clean and important next-generation source of energy. In the present study to develop the fuel cell based on biomaterials a novel biofuel cell which consists of collagen electrolyte and the hydrogen fuel generated from photochemical system II (PSII) in photosynthesis has been fabricated and its property has been investigated. It was found that the PSII solution in which PSII was extracted from the thylakoid membrane using a surfactant generates hydrogen by the irradiation of light. The typical hydrogen-generating rate is approximately 7.41 × 1014 molecules/s for the light intensity of 0.5 mW/cm2 for the PSII solution of 5 mL. The biofuel cell using the PSII solution as the fuel exhibited approximately 0.12 mW/cm2 . This result indicates that the fuel cell using the collagen electrolyte and the hydrogen fuel generated from PSII solution becomes the new type of biofuel cell and will lead to the development of the next-generation energy
The Role of Hydrogen in Achieving Long Term Japanese Energy System Goals
Sep 2020
Publication
This research qualitatively reviews literature regarding energy system modeling in Japan specific to the future hydrogen economy leveraging quantitative model outcomes to establish the potential future deployment of hydrogen in Japan. The analysis focuses on the four key sectors of storage supplementing the gas grid power generation and transportation detailing the potential range of hydrogen technologies which are expected to penetrate Japanese energy markets up to 2050 and beyond. Alongside key model outcomes the appropriate policy settings governance and market mechanisms are described which underpin the potential hydrogen economy future for Japan. We find that transportation gas grid supplementation and storage end-uses may emerge in significant quantities due to policies which encourage ambitious implementation targets investment in technologies and research and development and the emergence of a future carbon pricing regime. On the other hand for Japan which will initially be dependent on imported hydrogen the cost of imports appears critical to the emergence of broad hydrogen usage particularly in the power generation sector. Further the consideration of demographics in Japan recognizing the aging shrinking population and peoples’ energy use preferences will likely be instrumental in realizing a smooth transition toward a hydrogen economy.
Hydrogen Production Technologies Overview
Jan 2019
Publication
Hydrogen energy became the most significant energy as the current demand gradually starts to increase. Hydrogen energy is an important key solution to tackle the global temperature rise. The key important factor of hydrogen production is the hydrogen economy. Hydrogen production technologies are commercially available while some of these technologies are still under development. This paper reviews the hydrogen production technologies from both fossil and non-fossil fuels such as (steam reforming partial oxidation auto thermal pyrolysis and plasma technology). Additionally water electrolysis technology was reviewed. Water electrolysis can be combined with the renewable energy to get eco-friendly technology. Currently the maximum hydrogen fuel productions were registered from the steam reforming gasification and partial oxidation technologies using fossil fuels. These technologies have different challenges such as the total energy consumption and carbon emissions to the environment are still too high. A novel non-fossil fuel method [ammonia NH3] for hydrogen production using plasma technology was reviewed. Ammonia decomposition using plasma technology without and with a catalyst to produce pure hydrogen was considered as compared case studies. It was showed that the efficiency of ammonia decomposition using the catalyst was higher than ammonia decomposition without the catalyst. The maximum hydrogen energy efficiency obtained from the developed ammonia decomposition system was 28.3% with a hydrogen purity of 99.99%. The development of ammonia decomposition processes is continues for hydrogen production and it will likely become commercial and be used as a pure hydrogen energy source.
Liquid Hydrogen: A Review on Liquefaction, Storage, Transportation, and Safety
Sep 2021
Publication
Decarbonization plays an important role in future energy systems for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and establishing a zero-carbon society. Hydrogen is believed to be a promising secondary energy source (energy carrier) that can be converted stored and utilized efficiently leading to a broad range of possibilities for future applications. Moreover hydrogen and electricity are mutually converted creating high energy security and broad economic opportunities toward high energy resilience. Hydrogen can be stored in various forms including compressed gas liquid hydrogen hydrides adsorbed hydrogen and reformed fuels. Among these liquid hydrogen has advantages including high gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen densities and hydrogen purity. However liquid hydrogen is garnering increasing attention owing to the demand for long storage periods long transportation distances and economic performance. This paper reviews the characteristics of liquid hydrogen liquefaction technology storage and transportation methods and safety standards to handle liquid hydrogen. The main challenges in utilizing liquid hydrogen are its extremely low temperature and ortho- to para-hydrogen conversion. These two characteristics have led to the urgent development of hydrogen liquefaction storage and transportation. In addition safety standards for handling liquid hydrogen must be updated regularly especially to facilitate massive and large-scale hydrogen liquefaction storage and transportation.
Hydrogen Production Cost Forecasts since the 1970s and Implications for Technological Development
Jun 2022
Publication
This study reviews the extant literature on hydrogen production cost forecasts to identify and analyze the historical trend of such forecasts in order to explore the feasibility of wider adoption. Hydrogen is an important energy source that can be used to achieve a carbon-neutral society but the widespread adoption of hydrogen production technologies is hampered by the high costs. The production costs vary depending on the technology employed: gray renewable electrolysis or biomass. The study identifies 174 production cost forecast data points from articles published between 1979 and 2020 and makes a comparative assessment using non-parametric statistical tests. The results show three different cost forecast trends across technologies. First the production cost of gray hydrogen showed an increasing trend until 2015 but started declining after 2015. Second the renewable electrolysis hydrogen cost was the highest of all but has shown a gradual declining trend since 2015. Finally the biomass hydrogen cost has been relatively cheaper up until 2015 after which it became the highest. Renewable electrolysis and biomass hydrogen will be potential candidates (as principal drivers) to reduce CO2 emissions in the future but renewable electrolysis hydrogen is more promising in this regard due to its declining production cost trend. Gray hydrogen can also be an alternative candidate to renewable electrolysis hydrogen because it can be equipped with carbon capture storage (CCS) to produce blue hydrogen although we need to consider additional production costs incurred by the introduction of CCS. The study discusses the technological development and policy implications of the results on hydrogen production costs.
Effects of Hydrogen and Carbon Dioxide on the Laminar Burning Velocities of Methane-air Mixtures
Sep 2021
Publication
The effects of different mole fractions of hydrogen and carbon dioxide on the combustion characteristics of a premixed methane–air mixture are experimentally and numerically investigated. The laminar burning velocity of hydrogen-methane-carbon dioxide-air mixture was measured using the spherically expanding flame method at the initial temperature and pressure of 283 K and 0.1 MPa respectively. Additionally numerical analysis is conducted under steady 1D laminar flow conditions to investigate the adiabatic flame temperature and dominant elementary reactions. The measured velocities correspond with those estimated numerically. The results show that increasing the carbon dioxide mole fraction decreases the laminar burning velocity attributed to the carbon dioxide dilution which decreases the thermal diffusivity and flame temperature. Conversely the velocity increases with the thermal diffusivity as the hydrogen mole fraction increases. Moreover the hydrogen addition leads to chain-branching reactions that produce active H O and OH radicals via the oxidation of hydrocarbons which is the rate-determining reaction.
Graphene Oxide @ Nickel Phosphate Nanocomposites for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production
Mar 2021
Publication
The graphene oxide @nickel phosphate (GO:NPO) nanocomposites (NCs) are prepared by using a one-pot in-situ solar energy assisted method by varying GO:NPO ratio i.e. 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 and 2.00 without adding any surfactant or a structure-directing reagent. As produced GO:NPO nanosheets exhibited an improved photocatalytic activity due to the spatial seperation of charge carriers through interface where photoinduced electrons transferred from NiPO4 to the GO sheets without charge-recombination. Out of the series the system 1.00 GO:NPO NC show the optimum hydrogen production activity (15.37 μmol H2 h−1) towards water splitting under the visible light irradiation. The electronic environment of the nanocomposite GO-NiO6/NiO4-PO4 elucidated in the light of advance experimental analyses and theoretical DFT spin density calculations. Structural advanmcement of composites are well correlated with their hydrogen production activity.
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