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Prospective Roles for Green Hydrogen as Part of Ireland's Decarbonisation Strategy
Mar 2023
Publication
In recent decades governments and society have been making increasing efforts to address and mitigate climate change by reducing emissions and decarbonising energy generation. Ireland has invested greatly in renewable electricity installing 4 GW of wind capacity since 2002 and has set assertive energy targets such as the aim to reduce overall emissions by 51% by 2030. Nonetheless considerable acceleration is needed in the decarbonisation of the country’s energy sector. This paper investigates the potential role hydrogen can play in Ireland’s energy transition proposing hydrogen as an energy vector and storage medium that may help the country achieve its targets and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Through literature review research and from industry insights the current state of the Irish energy sector is analysed and recommendations are made as to how where and when hydrogen can be integrated into the decarbonisation of Ireland’s electricity heating and transport. It is concluded that; with significant effort from the government policymakers industry and organisations; the effective deployment of hydrogen technologies in Ireland could avoid up to 6.1 MtCO2eq of emissions annually reflecting a trend observed in many other developed countries in which hydrogen plays an important part in the path to a low-carbon future. Prospective roles for hydrogen in Ireland include renewable energy storage and grid balancing through the deployment of Power-to-Gas systems a replacement for fossil natural gas in the gas grid for backup electricity production as well as industry and heating requirements and the use of hydrogen as a fuel for heavy transport.
Clean Energy Futures: An Australian Based Foresight Study
Aug 2022
Publication
Political decarbonisation commitments and outcompeting renewable electricity costs are disrupting energy systems. This foresight study prepares stakeholders for this dynamic reactive change by examining visions that constitute a probable plausible and possible component of future energy systems. Visions were extrapolated through an expert review of energy technologies and Australian case studies. ‘Probable–Abundant’ envisages a high penetration of solar and wind with increased value of balancing services: batteries pumped hydro and transmission. This vision is exemplified by the South Australian grid where variable and distributed sources lead generation. ‘Plausible–Traded’ envisages power and power fuel exports given hydrogen and high-voltage direct-current transmission advances reflected by public and private sector plans to leverage rich natural resources for national and intercontinental exchanges. ‘Possible–Zero’ envisages the application of carbon removal and nuclear technologies in response to the escalating challenge of deep decarbonisation. The Australian critical minerals strategy signals adaptations of high-emission industries to shifting energy resource values. These visions contribute a flexible accessible framework for diverse stakeholders to discuss uncertain energy systems changes and consider issues from new perspectives. Appraisal of preferred futures allows stakeholders to recognise observed changes as positive or negative and may lead to new planning aspirations.
Novel Carbon-neutral Hydrogen Production Process of Steam Methane Reforming Integrated with Desalination Wastewater-based CO2 Utilization
Nov 2022
Publication
Steam methane reforming (SMR) process is facing serious greenhouse effect problems because of the significant CO2 emissions. To reduce pollution caused by gaseous emissions desalination wastewater can be used because it contains highly concentrated useful mineral ions such as Ca2+ Mg2+ and Na+ which react with carbonate ions. This study proposes a novel SMR process for carbon-neutral hydrogen production integrated with desalination wastewater-based CO2 utilization. A process model for the design of a novel SMR process is proposed; it comprises the following steps: (1) SMR process for hydrogen production; and (2) desalination wastewater recovery for CO2 utilization. In the process model the CO2 from the SMR process was captured using the Na+ ion and the captured ionic CO2 was carbonated using the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions in desalination wastewater. The levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) was assessed to demonstrate the economic feasibility of the proposed process. Therefore 94.5 % of the CO2 from the SMR process was captured and the conversion of MgCO3 and CaCO3 was determined to be 60 % and 99 % respectively. In addition the CO2 emission via the proposed process was determined to be 0.016 kgCO2/kgH2 and the LCOH was calculated to be 2.6 USD/kgH2.
Intelligent Damping Control of Renewable Energy/Hydrogen Energy DC Interconnection System
Oct 2022
Publication
Renewable energy DC hydrogen production has become a new development trend. Due to the interaction between the weak damping of DC network and the negative impedance characteristics of power supply of hydrogen production the actual available power of renewable and hydrogen energy DC interconnection system will be lower than its rated setting value. To solve this problem this paper proposes an intelligent damping control to realize the rated power operation of hydrogen generation power source and significantly improve the hydrogen generation performance. In this paper the nonlinear model under typical control strategies is established in order to adapt to different degrees of disturbance and the damping controller is designed based on state feedback including feedback control law and damping generation formula. On this basis an intelligent method of damping control is proposed to support rapid decision-making. Finally the intelligent damping control method is verified by simulation analysis. It realizes rated power of power supply of hydrogen production by generating only a small amount of damping power and superimposing it on the hydrogen production power
Can Methane Pyrolysis Based Hydrogen Production Lead to the Decarbonisation of Iron and Steel Industry?
Mar 2021
Publication
Decarbonisation of the iron and steel industry would require the use of innovative low-carbon production technologies. Use of 100% hydrogen in a shaft furnace (SF) to reduce iron ore has the potential to reduce emissions from iron and steel production significantly. In this work results from the techno-economic assessment of a H2-SF connected to an electric arc furnace(EAF) for steel production are presented under two scenarios. In the first scenario H2 is produced from molten metal methane pyrolysis in an electrically heated liquid metal bubble column reactor. Grid connected low-temperature alkaline electrolyser was considered for H2 production in the second scenario. In both cases 59.25 kgH2 was required for the production of one ton of liquid steel (tls). The specific energy consumption (SEC) for the methane pyrolysis based system was found to be 5.16 MWh/tls. The system used 1.51 MWh/tls of electricity and required 263 kg/tls of methane corresponding to an energy consumption of 3.65 MWh/tls. The water electrolysis based system consumed 3.96 MWh/tls of electricity at an electrolyser efficiency of 50 KWh/kgH2. Both systems have direct emissions of 129.4 kgCO2/tls. The indirect emissions are dependent on the source of natural gas pellet making process and the grid-emission factor. Indirect emissions for the electrolysis based system could be negligible if the electricity is generated from renewable energy sources. The levellized cost of production(LCOP) was found to be $631 and $669 respectively at a discount rate of 8% for a plant-life of 20 years. The LCOP of a natural gas reforming based direct reduction steelmaking plant of operating under similar conditions was found to be $414. Uncertainty analysis was conducted for the NPV and IRR values.
Review on COx-free Hydrogen from Methane Cracking: Catalysts, Solar Energy Integration and Applications
Oct 2021
Publication
Hydrogen fuel production from methane cracking is a sustainable process compared to the ones currently in practice due to minimal greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon black that is co-produced is a valuable product and can be marketed to other industries. As this is a high-temperature process using concentrated solar energy can further improve its sustainability. In this study a detailed review is conducted to study the advancements in methane cracking for hydrogen production using different catalysts. Various solar reactors developed for methane cracking are discussed. The application of hydrogen to produce other valuable chemicals are outlined. Hydrogen carriers such as methanol dimethyl ether ammonia and urea can efficiently store hydrogen energy and enable easier transportation. Further research in the field of methane cracking is required for reactor scale-up improved economics and to reduce the problems arising from carbon deposition leading to reactor clogging and catalyst deactivation.
Permeation Tests in Type-approval Regulations for Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicles: Analysis and Testing Experiences at the JRC-GASTEF Facility
Jan 2023
Publication
This article presents an analysis of the permeation tests established in the current regulations for the type-approval of on board tanks in hydrogen vehicles. The analysis is done from the point of view of a test maker regarding the preparation for the execution of a permeation test. The article contains a description of the required instrumentation and set-up to carry out a permeation test according to the applicable standards and regulations. Tank conditions at the beginning of the test configuration of permeation chamber duration of the test or permeation rate to be reported are aspects that are not well-defined in regulations. In this paper we examine the challenges when carrying out a permeation test and propose possible solutions to overcome them with the intention of supporting test makers and helping the development of permeation test guidelines.
Gauging Public Perceptions of Blue and Green Hydrogen Futures: Is the Twin-track Approach Compatible with Hydrogen Acceptance?
Jun 2023
Publication
National hydrogen strategies are emerging as a critical pillar of climate change policy. For homes connected to the gas grid hydrogen may offer an alternative decarbonisation pathway to electrification. Hydrogen production pathways in countries such as the UK will involve both the gas network and the electricity grid with related policy choices and investment decisions impacting the potential configuration of consumer acceptance for hydrogen homes. Despite the risk of public resistance be it on environmental economic or social grounds few studies have explored the emerging contours of domestic hydrogen acceptance. To date there is scarce evidence on public perceptions of national hydrogen policy and the extent to which attitudes may be rooted in prior knowledge and awareness or open to change following information provision and engagement. In response this study evaluates consumer preferences for a low-carbon energy future wherein parts of the UK housing stock may adopt low-carbon hydrogen boilers and hobs. Drawing on data from online focus groups we examine consumer perceptions of the government's twin-track approach which envisions important roles for both ‘blue’ and ‘green’ hydrogen to meet net zero ambitions. Through a mixed-methods multigroup analysis the underlying motivation is to explore whether the twin-track approach appears compatible with hydrogen acceptance. Moving forward hydrogen policy should ensure greater transparency concerning the benefits costs and risks of the transition with clearer communication about the justification for supporting respective hydrogen production pathways.
Projecting the Future Cost of PEM and Alkaline Water Electrolysers; a CAPEX Model Including Electrolyser Plant Size and Technology Department
Oct 2022
Publication
The investment costs of water electrolysis represent one key challenge for the realisation of renewable hydrogen-based energy systems. This work presents a technology cost assessment and outlook towards 2030 for alkaline electrolysers (AEL) and PEM electrolysers (PEMEL) in the MW to GW range taking into consideration the effects of plant size and expected technology developments. Critical selected data was fitted to a modified power law to describe the cost of an electrolyser plant based on the overall capacity and a learning/technology development rate to derive cost estimations for different PEMEL and AEL plant capacities towards 2030. The analysis predicts that the CAPEX gap between AEL and PEMEL technologies will decrease significantly towards 2030 with plant size until 1 e10 MW range. Beyond this only marginal cost reductions can be expected with CAPEX values approaching 320e400 $/kW for large scale (greater than 100 MW) plants by 2030 with subsequent cost reductions possible. Learning rates for electrolysers were estimated at 25 e30% for both AEL and PEMEL which are significantly higher than the learning rates reported in previous literature.
EU Harmonised Testing Procedure: Determination of Water Electrolyser Energy Performance
Jan 2023
Publication
The objective of this pre-normative research (PNR) document is to present a testing procedure for establishing the energy performance of water (steam) electrolyser systems (WE systems) whether grid-connected or off-grid and individual water electrolysers (WEs)/high-temperature electrolysers (HTEs) for the generation of hydrogen by water/steam electrolysis. The WE systems use electricity mostly from variable renewable energy sources. HTE may additionally utilise (waste) heat from energy conversion and other industrial processes. By applying this procedure the determination of the specific energy consumption per unit of hydrogen output under standard ambient temperature and pressure (SATP) conditions allows for an adequate comparison of different WE systems. Also the energy performance potential of WEs or WE systems employing low-temperature water electrolysis (LTWE) technologies compared to HTE employing high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSEL) technologies may be established under actual hydrogen output conditions by applying this procedure. The test method is to evaluate the specific energy consumption during steady-state operation at specified conditions including rated input power pressure and temperature of hydrogen recommended by the manufacturer of the WE or WE system. The energy efficiency and the electrical efficiency based on higher and lower heating value of hydrogen can be derived from respectively the specific energy consumption and the specific electric energy consumption as additional energy performance indicators (EPIs). In a plant setting the specific energy consumption of an individual water electrolyser including HTE under hydrogen output conditions may also be determined using this testing procedure. This procedure is intended to be used as a general characterisation method for evaluating the energy performance of WEs including HTEs and systems by the research community and industry alike.
Powering Europe with North Sea Offshore Wind: The Impact of Hydrogen Investments on Grid Infrastructure and Power Prices
Oct 2022
Publication
Hydrogen will be a central cross-sectoral energy carrier in the decarbonization of the European energy system. This paper investigates how a large-scale deployment of green hydrogen production affects the investments in transmission and generation towards 2060 analyzes the North Sea area with the main offshore wind projects and assesses the development of an offshore energy hub. Results indicate that the hydrogen deployment has a tremendous impact on the grid development in Europe and in the North Sea. Findings indicate that total power generation capacity increases around 50%. The offshore energy hub acts mainly as a power transmission asset leads to a reduction in total generation capacity and is central to unlock the offshore wind potential in the North Sea. The effect of hydrogen deployment on power prices is multifaceted. In regions where power prices have typically been lower than elsewhere in Europe it is observed that hydrogen increases the power price considerably. However as hydrogen flexibility relieves stress in high-demand periods for the grid power prices decrease in average for some countries. This suggests that while the deployment of green hydrogen will lead to a significant increase in power demand power prices will not necessarily experience a large increase.
High Proton-Conductive and Temperature-Tolerant PVC-P4VP Membranes towards Medium-Temperature Water Electrolysis
Mar 2022
Publication
Water electrolysis (WE) is a highly promising approach to producing clean hydrogen. Medium-temperature WE (100–350 ◦C) can improve the energy efficiency and utilize the low-grade water vapor. Therefore a high-temperature proton-conductive membrane is desirable to realize the medium-temperature WE. Here we present a polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-poly(4vinylpyridine) (P4VP) hybrid membrane by a simple cross-linking of PVC and P4VP. The pyridine groups of P4VP promote the loading rate of phosphoric acid which delivers the proton conductivity of the PVC-P4VP membrane. The optimized PVC-P4VP membrane with a 1:2 content ratio offers the maximum proton conductivity of 4.3 × 10−2 S cm−1 at 180 ◦C and a reliable conductivity stability in 200 h at 160 ◦C. The PVC-P4VP membrane electrode is covered by an IrO2 anode and a Pt/C cathode delivers not only the high water electrolytic reactivity at 100–180 ◦C but also the stable WE stability at 180 ◦C.
Hydrogen Economy Model for Nearly Net-Zero Cities with Exergy Rationale and Energy-Water Nexus
May 2018
Publication
The energy base of urban settlements requires greater integration of renewable energy sources. This study presents a “hydrogen city” model with two cycles at the district and building levels. The main cycle comprises of hydrogen gas production hydrogen storage and a hydrogen distribution network. The electrolysis of water is based on surplus power from wind turbines and third-generation solar photovoltaic thermal panels. Hydrogen is then used in central fuel cells to meet the power demand of urban infrastructure. Hydrogen-enriched biogas that is generated from city wastes supplements this approach. The second cycle is the hydrogen flow in each low-exergy building that is connected to the hydrogen distribution network to supply domestic fuel cells. Make-up water for fuel cells includes treated wastewater to complete an energy-water nexus. The analyses are supported by exergy-based evaluation metrics. The Rational Exergy Management Efficiency of the hydrogen city model can reach 0.80 which is above the value of conventional district energy systems and represents related advantages for CO2 emission reductions. The option of incorporating low-enthalpy geothermal energy resources at about 80 ◦C to support the model is evaluated. The hydrogen city model is applied to a new settlement area with an expected 200000 inhabitants to find that the proposed model can enable a nearly net-zero exergy district status. The results have implications for settlements using hydrogen energy towards meeting net-zero targets.
Blending Hydrogen from Electrolysis into the European Gas Grid
Jan 2022
Publication
In 2020 the European Commission launched a hydrogen strategy for a climate-neutral Europe setting out the conditions and actions for mainstreaming clean hydrogen along with targets for installing renewable hydrogen electrolysers by 2024 and 2030. Blending hydrogen alongside other gases into the existing gas grid is considered a possible interim first step towards decarbonising natural gas. In the present analysis we modelled electrolytic hydrogen generation as a process connecting two separate energy systems (power and gas). The analysis is based on a projection of the European power and gas systems to 2030 based on the EUCO3232.5 scenario. Multiple market configurations were introduced in order to assess the interplay between diverse power market arrangements and constraints imposed by the upper bound on hydrogen concentration. The study identifies the maximum electrolyser capacity that could be integrated in the power and gas systems the impact on greenhouse gas emissions and the level of price support that may be required for a broad range of electrolyser configurations. The study further attempts to shed some light on the potential side effects of having non-harmonised H2 blending thresholds between neighbouring Member States.
Performance of Three Typical Domestic Gas Stoves Operated with Methane-hydrogen Mixture
Dec 2022
Publication
Hydrogen blending into natural gas has attracted significant attention in domestic applications. The paper studied the effects of natural gas mixed with hydrogen at 0% (vol) 5% 10% 15% 20% and 25% on the performance of typical round-port gas stove (TRPGS) swirling strip-port gas stove (SSPGS) and radiant porous media gas stove (RPMGS). The experimental results show that flame length shortens with the increase of hydrogen proportion and the combustion remains stable when the hydrogen proportion is equal to or less than 25%. With increasing hydrogen proportion the measured heat inputs of the three types of domestic gas stoves decrease gradually and the average thermal efficiency of TRPGS and SSPGS increase by 0.82% and 1.18% respectively. In addition the average efficiency of the RPMGS first increases by 1.35% under a hydrogen proportion of 15% and then decreases by 1.36% under a hydrogen proportion of 25%. In terms of flue gas emission CO emission reduces significantly with increasing hydrogen proportion while NOX emissions remain almost unchanged.
Planetary Boundaries Assessment of Deep Decarbonisation Options for Building Heating in the European Union
Jan 2023
Publication
Building heating is one of the sectors for which multiple decarbonisation options exist and current geopolitical tensions provide urgency to design adequate regional policies. Heat pumps and hydrogen boilers alongside alternative district heating systems are the most promising alternatives. Although a host of city or country-level studies exist it remains controversial what role hydrogen should play for building heating in the European Union compared with electrification and how blue and green hydrogen differ in terms of costs and environmental impacts. This works assesses the optimal technology mix for staying within planetary boundaries and the influence of international cooperation and political restrictions. To perform the analysis a bottom-up optimisation model was developed incorporating life cycle assessment constraints and covering production storage transport of energy and carbon dioxide as well as grid and non-grid connected end-users of heat. It was found that a building heating system within planetary boundaries is feasible through large-scale electrification via heat pumps although at a higher cost than the current system with abatement costs of around 200 €/ton CO2. Increasing interconnector capacity or onshore wind energy is found to be vital to staying within boundaries. A strong trade-off for hydrogen was identified with blue hydrogen being cost-competitive but vastly unsustainable (when applied to heating) and green hydrogen being 2–3 times more expensive than electrification while still transgressing several planetary boundaries. The insights from this work indicate that heat pumps and renewable electricity should be prioritised over hydrogen-based heating in most cases and grid-stability and storage aspects explored further while revealing a need for policy instruments to mitigate increased costs for consumers.
Hydrogen Technology for Supply Chain Sustainability: The Mexican Transportation Impacts on Society
Mar 2022
Publication
This study sheds light on the Hydrogen technology in transportation for reaching the sustainability goals of societies illustrated by the case of Mexico. In terms of the affected supply chains the study explores how the packaging and distribution of a fuel-saving tool that allows the adoption of hydrogen as complementary energy for maritime transportation to improve economic and environmental performance in Mexico. This exploratory study performs interviews observations simulations and tests involving producers suppliers and users at 26 ports in Mexico. The study shows that environmental and economic performance are related to key processes in Supply Chain Management (SCM) in which packaging and distribution are critical for achieving logistics and transportation sustainability goals. Reusable packaging and the distribution of a fuel-saving tool can help decrease costs - of transport and downstream/upstream processes in SCM while at the same time increasing the environmental performance.
Hydrogen Strategy Update to the Market: December 2022
Dec 2022
Publication
The Government is committed to developing the UK’s low carbon hydrogen economy: hydrogen is considered critical to delivering energy security and our decarbonisation targets and presents a significant growth opportunity. It can play a pivotal role in our transition to a future based on renewable and nuclear energy while ensuring that natural gas used during this transition is from reliable sources including our own North Sea production and can provide clean energy for use in industry power transport and potentially home heating. In the UK Hydrogen Strategy we included the commitment to regularly summarise our policy development to keep industry apprised. Since publication of the Hydrogen Strategy we have doubled our low carbon hydrogen production capacity ambition to up to 10GW by 2030 (with at least half from electrolytic hydrogen) in the British Energy Security Strategy provided greater clarity to investors through the Hydrogen Investment Package and made substantial policy and funding strides across the hydrogen value chain. We summarised these ambitions commitments and actions in the first Hydrogen Strategy update to the market in July 2022. This was published alongside other key elements of our policy support which also included the launch of the first Electrolytic Hydrogen Allocation Round – offering joint Net Zero Hydrogen Fund (NZHF) and Hydrogen Production Business Model (HPBM) support – and our Hydrogen Sector Development Action Plan and the appointment of a UK Hydrogen Champion. Hydrogen is closely integrated into Government’s wider policy development on energy security and the energy transition both domestically and internationally with hydrogen policy previously announced through the Net Zero Strategy and the Breakthrough Agenda at COP26. This December 2022 Hydrogen Strategy update to the market summarises the extensive activity across Government since July to develop new hydrogen policy at pace and to design and deliver funding support. This includes announcements on shortlisted hydrogen projects in the Cluster Sequencing Process the launch of a consultation on hydrogen transport and storage (T&S) infrastructure the publication of the HPBM Heads of Terms and an update on the ongoing first Electrolytic Hydrogen Allocation Round. The hydrogen policy development presented here underlines the Government’s approach to promote every aspect of the UK hydrogen economy in collaboration with industry investors and international partners to create a strong globally competitive UK hydrogen sector.
Investigations on Pressure Dependence of Coriolis Mass Flow Meters Used at Hydrogen Refueling Stations
Sep 2020
Publication
In the framework of the ongoing EMPIR JRP 16ENG01 ‘‘Metrology for Hydrogen Vehicles’’ a main task is to investigate the influence of pressure on the measurement accuracy of Coriolis Mass Flow Meters (CFM) used at Hydrogen Refueling Stations (HRS). At a HRS hydrogen is transferred at very high and changing pressures with simultaneously varying flow rates and temperatures. It is clearly very difficult for CFMs to achieve the current legal requirements with respect to mass flow measurement accuracy at these measurement conditions. As a result of the very dynamic filling process it was observed that the accuracy of mass flow measurement at different pressure ranges is not sufficient. At higher pressures it was found that particularly short refueling times cause significant measurement deviations. On this background it may be concluded that pressure has a great impact on the accuracy of mass flow measurement. To gain a deeper understanding of this matter RISE has built a unique high-pressure test facility. With the aid of this newly developed test rig it is possible to calibrate CFMs over a wide pressure and flow range with water or base oils as test medium. The test rig allows calibration measurements under the conditions prevailing at a 70 MPa HRS regarding mass flows (up to 3.6 kg min−1) and pressures (up to 87.5 MPa).
Techno-economic Model and Feasibility Assessment of Green Hydrogen Projects Based on Electrolysis Supplied by Photovoltaic PPAs
Nov 2022
Publication
The use of hydrogen produced from renewable energy enables the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions pursued in different international strategies. The use of power purchase agreements (PPAs) to supply renewable electricity to hydrogen production plants is an approach that can improve the feasibility of projects. This paper presents a model applicable to hydrogen projects regarding the technical and economic perspective and applies it to the Spanish case where pioneering projects are taking place via photovoltaic PPAs. The results show that PPAs are an enabling mechanism for sustaining green hydrogen projects.
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