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Bench-Scale Steam Reforming of Methane for Hydrogen Production
Jul 2019
Publication
The effects of reaction parameters including reaction temperature and space velocity on hydrogen production via steam reforming of methane (SRM) were investigated using lab- and bench-scale reactors to identify critical factors for the design of large-scale processes. Based on thermodynamic and kinetic data obtained using the lab-scale reactor a series of SRM reactions were performed using a pelletized catalyst in the bench-scale reactor with a hydrogen production capacity of 10 L/min. Various temperature profiles were tested for the bench-scale reactor which was surrounded by three successive cylindrical furnaces to simulate the actual SRM conditions. The temperature at the reactor bottom was crucial for determining the methane conversion and hydrogen production rates when a sufficiently high reaction temperature was maintained (>800 ◦C) to reach thermodynamic equilibrium at the gas-hourly space velocity of 2.0 L CH4/(h·gcat). However if the temperature of one or more of the furnaces decreased below 700 ◦C the reaction was not equilibrated at the given space velocity. The effectiveness factor (0.143) of the pelletized catalyst was calculated based on the deviation of methane conversion between the lab- and bench-scale reactions at various space velocities. Finally an idling procedure was proposed so that catalytic activity was not affected by discontinuous operation.
Metal Hydroborates: From Hydrogen Stores to Solid Electrolyte
Nov 2021
Publication
The last twenty years of an intense research on metal hydroborates as solid hydrogen stores and solid electrolytes are reviewed. It is shown that from the most promising application in hydrogen storage due to their high gravimetric and volumetric capacities the focus has moved to solid electrolytes due to high cation mobility in disordered structures with rotating or tumbling anions-hydroborate clusters. Various strategies of overcoming the strong covalent bonding of hydrogen in hydroborates for hydrogen storage and disordering their structures at room temperature for solid electrolytes are discussed. The important role of crystal chemistry and crystallography knowledge in material design can be read in the cited literature.
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: Venturing into Hydrogen
Apr 2021
Publication
Since 2014 when the firm was founded within Anglo-American AP Ventures has been at the forefront of investment in hydrogen sector technologies. At the time the firm started the concerns around climate change and investment in renewable energy tech was gearing up but interest in hydrogen as part of the path to a decarbonized future was limited. The founders of AP Ventures felt differently and saw significant potential for hydrogen to offer a means for cleaning up highly carbon intensive sectors such as heavy transport industrial manufacturing and mining operations. Today that vision for hydrogen appears rather prescient. We are delighted to have two members from the team at AP Ventures with us on the show today. The team is joined by Kevin Eggers - a founding partner at AP - and Michell Robson - associate on the firm's investment team.
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
The Role of Hydrocarbons in the Global Energy Agenda: The Focus on Liquefied Natural Gas
May 2020
Publication
Presently there is a paradoxical situation in the global energy market related to a gap between the image of hydrocarbon resources (HCR) and their real value for the economy. On the one hand we face an increase in expected HCR production and consumption volumes both in the short and long term. On the other hand we see the formation of the image of HCR and associated technologies as an unacceptable option without enough attention to the differences in fuels and the ways of their usage. Due to this it seems necessary to take a step back to review the vitality of such a political line. This article highlights an alternative point of view with regard to energy development prospects. The purpose of this article is to analyse the consistency of criticism towards HCR based on exploration of scientific literature analytical documents of international corporations and energy companies as well as critical assessment of technologies offered for the HCR substitution. The analysis showed that: (1) it is impossible to substitute the majority of HCR with alternative power resources in the near term (2) it is essential that the criticism of energy companies with regard to their responsibility for climate change should lead not to destruction of the industry but to the search of sustainable means for its development (3) the strategic benchmarks of oil and coal industries should shift towards chemical production but their significance should not be downgraded for the energy sector (4) liquified natural gas (LNG) is an independent industry with the highest expansion potential in global markets in the coming years as compared to alternative energy options and (5) Russia possesses a huge potential for the development of the gas industry and particularly LNG that will be unlocked if timely measures on higher efficiency of the state regulation system are implemented.
Hydrogen Generation from Wood Chip and Biochar by Combined Continuous Pyrolysis and Hydrothermal Gasification
Jun 2021
Publication
Hydrothermal gasification (HTG) experiments were carried out to extract hydrogen from biomass. Although extensive research has been conducted on hydrogen production with HTG limited research exists on the use of biochar as a raw material. In this study woodland residues (wood chip) and biochar from wood-chip pyrolysis were used in HTG treatment to generate hydrogen. This research investigated the effect of temperature (300–425 °C) and biomass/water (0.5–10) ratio on gas composition. A higher temperature promoted hydrogen production because the water–gas shift reaction and steam-reforming reaction were promoted with an increase in temperature. The methane concentration was related positively to temperature because of the methanation and hydrogenation reactions. A lower biomass/water ratio promoted hydrogen production but suppressed carbon-monoxide production. Most reactions that produce hydrogen consume water but water also affects the water–gas shift reaction balance which decreases the carbon-monoxide concentration. By focusing on the practical application of HTG we attempted biochar treatment by pyrolysis (temperature of heating part: 700 °C) and syngas was obtained from hydrothermal treatment above 425 °C.
Options for Producing Low-carbon Hydrogen at Scale
Feb 2018
Publication
Low-carbon hydrogen has the potential to play a significant role in tackling climate change and poor air quality. This policy briefing considers how hydrogen could be produced at a useful scale to power vehicles heat homes and supply industrial processes.
Four groups of hydrogen production technologies are examined:
Thermochemical Routes to Hydrogen
These methods typically use heat and fossil fuels. Steam methane reforming is the dominant commercial technology and currently produces hydrogen on a large scale but is not currently low carbon. Carbon capture is therefore essential with this process. Innovative technology developments may also help and research is underway. Alternative thermal methods of creating hydrogen indicate biomass gasification has potential. Other techniques at a low technology readiness level include separation of hydrogen from hydrocarbons using microwaves.
Electrolytic Routes to Hydrogen
Electrolytic hydrogen production also known as electrolysis splits water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity in an electrolysis cell. Electrolysis produces pure hydrogen which is ideal for low temperature fuel cells for example in electric vehicles. Commercial electrolysers are on the market and have been in use for many years. Further technology developments will enable new generation electrolysers to be commercially competitive when used at scale with fluctuating renewable energy sources.
Biological Routes to Hydrogen
Biological routes usually involve the conversion of biomass to hydrogen and other valuable end products using microbial processes. Methods such as anaerobic digestion are feasible now at a laboratory and small pilot scale. This technology may prove to have additional or greater impact and value as route for the production of high value chemicals within a biorefinery concept.
Solar to Fuels Routes to Hydrogen
A number of experimental techniques have been reported the most developed of which is ‘solar to fuels’ - a suite of technologies that typically split water into hydrogen and oxygen using solar energy. These methods have close parallels with the process of photosynthesis and are often referred to as ‘artificial photosynthesis’ processes. The research is promising though views are divided on its ultimate utility. Competition for space will always limit the scale up of solar to fuels.
The briefing concludes that steam methane reforming and electrolysis are the most likely technologies to be deployed to produce low-carbon hydrogen at volume in the near to mid-term providing that the challenges of high levels of carbon capture (for steam methane reforming) and cost reduction and renewable energy sources (for electrolysis) can be overcome.
Four groups of hydrogen production technologies are examined:
Thermochemical Routes to Hydrogen
These methods typically use heat and fossil fuels. Steam methane reforming is the dominant commercial technology and currently produces hydrogen on a large scale but is not currently low carbon. Carbon capture is therefore essential with this process. Innovative technology developments may also help and research is underway. Alternative thermal methods of creating hydrogen indicate biomass gasification has potential. Other techniques at a low technology readiness level include separation of hydrogen from hydrocarbons using microwaves.
Electrolytic Routes to Hydrogen
Electrolytic hydrogen production also known as electrolysis splits water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity in an electrolysis cell. Electrolysis produces pure hydrogen which is ideal for low temperature fuel cells for example in electric vehicles. Commercial electrolysers are on the market and have been in use for many years. Further technology developments will enable new generation electrolysers to be commercially competitive when used at scale with fluctuating renewable energy sources.
Biological Routes to Hydrogen
Biological routes usually involve the conversion of biomass to hydrogen and other valuable end products using microbial processes. Methods such as anaerobic digestion are feasible now at a laboratory and small pilot scale. This technology may prove to have additional or greater impact and value as route for the production of high value chemicals within a biorefinery concept.
Solar to Fuels Routes to Hydrogen
A number of experimental techniques have been reported the most developed of which is ‘solar to fuels’ - a suite of technologies that typically split water into hydrogen and oxygen using solar energy. These methods have close parallels with the process of photosynthesis and are often referred to as ‘artificial photosynthesis’ processes. The research is promising though views are divided on its ultimate utility. Competition for space will always limit the scale up of solar to fuels.
The briefing concludes that steam methane reforming and electrolysis are the most likely technologies to be deployed to produce low-carbon hydrogen at volume in the near to mid-term providing that the challenges of high levels of carbon capture (for steam methane reforming) and cost reduction and renewable energy sources (for electrolysis) can be overcome.
Outlook of Fermentative Hydrogen Production Techniques: An Overview of Dark, Photo and Integrated Dark-photo Fermentative Approach to Biomass
Jan 2019
Publication
Biomass can be a sustainable choice for bioenergy production worldwide. Biohydrogen production using fermentative conversion of biomass has gained great interest during the last decade. Besides being an efficient transportation fuel biohydrogen can also be also be a low-carbon source of heat and electricity. Microbes assisted conversion (bioconversion) can be take place either in presence or absence of light. This is called photofermentation or dark-fermentation respectively. This review provides an overview of approaches of fermentative hydrogen production. This includes: dark photo and integrated fermentative modes of hydrogen production; the molecular basis behind its production and diverse range of its applicability industrially. Mechanistic understanding of the metabolic pathways involved in biomass-based fermentative hydrogen production are also reviewed.
Research Requirements to Move the Bar Forward Using Aqueous Formate Salts as H2 Carriers for Energy Storage Applications
Nov 2020
Publication
In this perspective on hydrogen carriers we focus on the needs for the development of robust active catalysts for the release of H2 from aqueous formate solutions which are non-flammable non-toxic thermally stable and readily available at large scales at reasonable cost. Formate salts can be stockpiled in the solid state or dissolved in water for long term storage and transport using existing infrastructure. Furthermore formate salts are readily regenerated at moderate pressures using the same catalyst as for the H2 release. There have been several studies focused on increasing the activity of catalysts to release H2 at moderate temperatures i.e. < 80 °C below the operating temperature of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell. One significant challenge to enable the use of aqueous formate salts as hydrogen carriers is the deactivation of the catalyst under operating conditions. In this work we provide a review of the most efficient heterogeneous catalysts that have been described in the literature their proposed modes of deactivation and the strategies reported to reactivate them. We discuss potential pathways that may lead to deactivation and strategies to mitigate it in a variety of H2 carrier applications. We also provide an example of a potential use case employing formate salts solutions using a fixed bed reactor for seasonal storage of energy for a microgrid application.
Safety Assessment of Hydrogen Jet Fire Scenarios within Semi-Confined Spaces
Jan 2023
Publication
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) technology poses great promise as an alternative to significantly reduce the environmental impact of the transport sector’s emissions. However hydrogen fuel cell technology is relatively new therefore confirmation of the reliability and safety analysis is still required particularly for fire scenarios within confined spaces such as tunnels. This study applied the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations in conjunction with probabilistic calculation methods to determine the associated thermal risk of a hydrogen jet fire in a tunnel and its dependency on scenarios with different tunnel slopes longitudinal and transverse ventilation velocities and fire positions. A large-scale model of 102 m in which the effects of outlined parameter variations on the severity of the fire incident were analysed. It is found that both tunnel ventilation techniques and slope were critical for the effective ejection of accumulated heat. With ventilation playing a primary role in the ejection of heat and gas and slope ensuring the stability of the ejected heat probabilities of thermal burns were found to be reduced by up to approximately 35% with a strong suggestion of critical combinations to further reduce the dangers of hydrogen tunnel fires.
Environmental and Energy Life Cycle Analyses of Passenger Vehicle Systems Using Fossil Fuel-derived Hydrogen
Sep 2021
Publication
Hydrogen energy utilization is expected due to its environmental and energy efficiencies. However many issues remain to be solved in the social implementation of hydrogen energy through water electrolysis. This analyzes and compares the energy consumption and GHG emissions of fossil fuel-derived hydrogen and gasoline energy systems over their entire life cycle. The results demonstrate that for similar vehicle weights the hydrogen energy system consumes 1.8 MJ/km less energy and emits 0.15 kg-CO 2 eq./km fewer GHG emissions than those of the gasoline energy system. Hydrogen derived from fossil fuels may contribute to future energy systems due to its stable energy supply and economic efficiency. Lowering the power source carbon content also improved the environmental and energy efficiencies of hydrogen energy derived from fossil fuels.
Sustainability Assessment and Engineering of Emerging Aircraft Technologies—Challenges, Methods and Tools
Jul 2020
Publication
Driven by concerns regarding the sustainability of aviation and the continued growth of air traffic increasing interest is given to emerging aircraft technologies. Although new technologies such as battery-electric propulsion systems have the potential to minimise in-flight emissions and noise environmental burdens are possibly shifted to other stages of the aircraft’s life cycle and new socio-economic challenges may arise. Therefore a life-cycle-oriented sustainability assessment is required to identify these hotspots and problem shifts and to derive recommendations for action for aircraft development at an early stage. This paper proposes a framework for the modelling and assessment of future aircraft technologies and provides an overview of the challenges and available methods and tools in this field. A structured search and screening process is used to determine which aspects of the proposed framework are already addressed in the scientific literature and in which areas research is still needed. For this purpose a total of 66 related articles are identified and systematically analysed. Firstly an overview of statistics of papers dealing with life-cycle-oriented analysis of conventional and emerging aircraft propulsion systems is given classifying them according to the technologies considered the sustainability dimensions and indicators investigated and the assessment methods applied. Secondly a detailed analysis of the articles is conducted to derive answers to the defined research questions. It illustrates that the assessment of environmental aspects of alternative fuels is a dominating research theme while novel approaches that integrate socio-economic aspects and broaden the scope to battery-powered fuel-cell-based or hybrid-electric aircraft are emerging. It also provides insights by what extent future aviation technologies can contribute to more sustainable and energy-efficient aviation. The findings underline the need to harmonise existing methods into an integrated modelling and assessment approach that considers the specifics of upcoming technological developments in aviation.
Analysis of a Large Balloon Explosion Incident
Sep 2021
Publication
On December 19 2017 a large balloon containing about 22 thousand cubic meters of hydrogen was deliberately torn open to initiate deflation at the completion of a filling test. An inadvertent ignition occurred after about two seconds and caused an explosion that produced extensive light damage to a large building near the balloon test pad. The analysis described here includes an estimate of the buoyancy induced mixing into the torn balloon and the blast wave produced by assumed constant flame speed combustion of the 55% to 65% hydrogen-in-air mixture. Comparisons of calculated blast wave pressures are consistent with estimates of the pressure needed to cause the observed building damage for flame speeds in the range 85 m/s to about 100 m/s.
Accumulation of Inert Impurities in a Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell System with Anode Recirculation and Periodic Purge: A Simple Analytical Model
Mar 2022
Publication
Anode recirculation with periodic purge is commonly used in polymer electrolyte fuel cell systems to control the accumulation of nitrogen water and other impurities that are present in the fuel or diffuse through the membrane from the cathode compartment. In this work we develop a simple generalized analytical model that simulates the time dependence of the accumulation of inert impurities in the anode compartment of such a system. It is shown that when there is transport out of the anode chamber the inert species is expected to accumulate exponentially until equilibrium is reached when the rate of inert entering the anode in the fuel supply and/or via crossover from the cathode is balanced by the rate of leakage and/or crossover to the cathode. The model is validated using recently published experimental data for the accumulation of N2 CH4 and CO2 in a recirculated system. The results show that nitrogen accumulation needs to be taken into account to properly adjust system parameters such as purge rate purge volume and recirculation rate. The use of this generalized analytical model is intended to aid the selection of these system parameters to optimize performance in the presence of inerts.
Gas Goes Green: Tomorrow's Heat, Today's Opportunity
Sep 2021
Publication
Cutting-edge world-leading energy network innovation is vital to ensuring that our economy can continue to access the energy it needs to safeguard jobs and to maintain our international competitiveness as the world goes through decarbonisation. In this report we build on the 2020 Gas Goes Green Zero Carbon Commitment to set out the scale of investment that Britain’s gas networks wish to deliver to hydrogen innovation projects and preparing the gas networks. This work will be focused over the next ten years creating highly-skilled high-tech green jobs through investment and ensuring that the impact of that innovation is felt in communities across the UK.
Challenges Toward Achieving a Successful Hydrogen Economy in the US: Potential End-use and Infrastructure Analysis to the Year 2100
Jul 2022
Publication
Fossil fuels continue to exacerbate climate change due to large carbon emissions resulting from their use across a number of sectors. An energy transition away from fossil fuels seems inevitable and energy sources such as renewables and hydrogen may provide a low carbon alternative for the future energy system particularly in large emitting nations such as the United States. This research quantifies and maps potential hydrogen fuel distribution pathways for the continental US reflecting technological changes barriers to deployment and end-use-cases from 2020 to 2100 clarifying the potential role of hydrogen in the US energy transition. The methodology consists of two parts a linear optimization of the global energy system constrained by carbon reduction targets and system cost followed by a projection of hydrogen infrastructure development. Key findings include the emergence of trade pattern diversification with a greater variety of end-uses associated with imported fuels and greater annual hydrogen consumption over time. Further sensitivity analysis identified the influence of complementary technologies including nuclear power and carbon capture and storage technologies. We conclude that hydrogen penetration into the US energy system is economically viable and can contribute toward achieving Paris Agreement and more aggressive carbon reduction targets in the future.
Siting and Co-location with Hydrogen: What are the Risks?
Sep 2021
Publication
The demand for hydrogen has grown more than threefold since 1975 [1] and price is expected to significantly decrease by 2030 [2] concluding in an expected continual increase in demand. HyLaw defined by Hydrogen Europe lays out recommendations for hydrogen applications using identified Legal and Administrative Processes (LAPs) across 18 European countries. Regarding site location HyLaw refers to the land use plan. This defines the production and storage of hydrogen as an industrial activity and therefore regardless of the specific site methods of production or use the hydrogen site must be within a permitted industrial zone or under specific condition commercial areas [3]. Local authorities fire departments and other concerned parties may need to be consulted on site suitability for the project. Risktec explores a range of considerations for siting and layout of hydrogen developments including co-location with other assets for example with renewable energy sources hazardous facilities or public structures. Good practice tools and assessment techniques are presented to mitigate the risks associated with the production storage and use of hydrogen not just the surrounding site and environment but the operatives of the facility.
The EOS Project- A SOFC Pilot Plant in Italy Safety Aspects
Sep 2005
Publication
This paper deals with the main safety aspects of the EOS project. The partners of the project – Politecnico di Torino Gas Turbine Technologies (GTT Siemens group) Hysylab (Hydrogen System Laboratory) of Environment Park and Regione Piemonte – aim to create the main node of a regional fuel cell generator network. As a first step the Pennsylvania-based Stationary Fuel Cells division of Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation (SWPC) supplied GTT with a CHP 100 kWe SOFC (Solide Oxide Fuel Cell) field unit fuelled by natural gas with internal reforming. The fuel cell is connected to the electricity national grid and provides part of the industrial district energy requirement. The thermal energy from the fuel cells is used for heating and air-conditioning of GTT offices bringing the total first Law efficiency of the plant to 70-80%. In the second phase of the EOS project (2007/2008) the maximum power produced by the SOFC systems installed in the GTT EOS test room will be increased to a total of about 225 kWe by means of an additional SOFC generator rated 125 kWe and up to 115 kWth. The paper provides information about the safety analysis which was performed during the main steps of the design of the system i.e. the HAZOP during the SOFC design by SWPC and the safety evaluations during the test hall design by GTT and Politecnico di Torino.
How Flexible Electricity Demand Stabilizes Wind and Solar Market Values: The Case of Hydrogen Electrolyzers
Nov 2021
Publication
Wind and solar energy are often expected to fall victim to their own success: the higher their share in electricity generation the more their revenue in electricity markets (their “market value”) declines. While market values may converge to zero in conventional power systems this study argues that “green” hydrogen production can effectively and permanently halt the decline by adding flexible electricity demand in low-price hours. To support this argument this article further develops the merit order model and uses price duration curves to include flexible hydrogen electrolysis and to derive an analytical formula for the minimum market value of renewables in the long-term market equilibrium. This hydrogen-induced minimum market value is quantified for a wide range of parameters using Monte Carlo simulations and complemented with results from a more detailed numerical electricity market model. It is shown that—due to flexible hydrogen production alone—market values across Europe will likely stabilize above €19 ± 9 MWh− 1 for solar energy and above €27 ± 8 MWh− 1 for wind energy in 2050 (annual mean estimate ± standard deviation). This is in the range of the projected levelized cost of renewables and other types of flexible electricity demand may further increase renewable market values. Market-based renewables may hence be within reach.
Impact and Challenges of Reducing Petroleum Consumption for Decarbonization
Apr 2022
Publication
This study aimed to identify the impact of achieving the 1.5 ◦C target on the petroleum supply chain in Japan and discuss the feasibility and challenges of decarbonization. First a national material flow was established for the petroleum supply chain in Japan including processes for crude petroleum refining petroleum product manufacturing plastic resin and product manufacturing and by-product manufacturing. In particular by-product manufacturing processes such as hydrogen gaseous carbon dioxide and sulfur were selected because they are utilized in other industries. Next the outlook for the production of plastic resin hydrogen dry ice produced from carbon dioxide gas and sulfur until 2050 was estimated for reducing petroleum consumption required to achieve the 1.5 ◦C target. As a result national petroleum treatment is expected to reduce from 177048.00 thousand kl in 2019 to 126643.00 thousand kl in 2030 if the reduction in petroleum consumption is established. Along with this decrease plastic resin production is expected to decrease from 10500.00 thousand ton in 2019 to 7511.00 thousand ton by 2030. Conversely the plastic market is expected to grow steadily and the estimated plastic resin production in 2030 is expected to be 20079.00 thousand ton. This result indicates that there is a large output gap between plastic supply and demand. To mitigate this gap strongly promoting the recycling of waste plastics and making the price competitiveness of biomass plastics equal to that of petroleum-derived plastics are necessary
Decarbonising Heat in Buildings: Putting Consumers First
Apr 2021
Publication
From an evaluation of the GB housing stock it is clear that a mosaic of low carbon heating technologies will be needed to reach net zero. While heat pumps are an important component of this mix our analysis shows that it is likely to be impractical to heat many GB homes with heat pumps only. A combination of lack of exterior space and/or the thermal properties of the building fabric mean that a heat pump is not capable of meeting the space heating requirement of 8 to 12m homes (or 37% to 54% of the 22.7m homes assessed in this report) or can do so only through the installation of highly disruptive and intrusive measures such as solid wall insulation. Hybrid heat pumps that are designed to optimise efficiency of the system do not have the same requirements of a heat pump and may be a suitable solution for some of these homes. This is likely to mean that decarbonised gas networks are therefore critical to delivery of net zero. 3 to 4m homes1 (or 14% to 18% of homes assessed in our analysis) could be made suitable for heat pump retrofit through energy efficiency measures such as cavity wall insulation. For 7 to 10m homes there are no limiting factors and they require minimal/no upgrade requirements to be made heat pump-ready. Nevertheless given firstly the levels of disruption to the floors and interiors of homes caused by the installation of heat pumps and secondly the cost and disruption associated with the requirement to significantly upgrade the electricity distribution networks to cope with large numbers of heat pumps operating at peak demand times - combined with the availability of a decarbonised gas network which requires a simple like-for-like boiler replacement - is likely to mean that many of these ‘swing’ properties will be better served through a gas based technology such as hydrogen (particularly when consumer choice is factored in) or a hybrid system. A recent trial run in winter 2018-19 by the Energy System Catapult revealed that all participants were reluctant to make expensive investments to improve the energy efficiency of their homes just to enhance the performance of their heat pump. They were more interested in less costly upgrades and tangible benefits such as lower bills or greater comfort. This means that renewable gases including hydrogen as heating fuels are a crucial component of the journey to net zero and the UK’s hydrogen ambitions should be reflective of this. The analysis presented in this paper focuses on the external fabric of the buildings further analysis should be undertaken to consider the internal system changes that would be required for heat pumps and hydrogen boilers for example BEIS Domestic Heat Distribution Systems: Gathering Report from February 2021 which considers the suitability of radiators for the low carbon transition.
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