United Kingdom
Techno-economic Viability of Islanded Green Ammonia as a Carbon-free Energy Vector and as a Substitute for Conventional Production
Jul 2020
Publication
Decarbonising ammonia production is an environmental imperative given that it independently accounts for 1.8% of global carbon dioxide emissions and supports the feeding of over 48% of the global population. The recent decline of production costs and its potential as an energy vector warrant investigation of whether green ammonia production is commercially competitive. Considering 534 locations in 70 countries and designing and operating the islanded production process to minimise the levelised cost of ammonia (LCOA) at each we show the range of achievable LCOA the cost of process flexibility the components of LCOA and therein the scope of LCOA reduction achievable at present and in 2030. These results are benchmarked against ammonia spot prices cost per GJ of refined fuels and the LCOE of alternative energy storage methods. Currently a LCOA of $473 t1 is achievable at the best locations the required process flexibility increases the achievable LCOA by 56%; the electrolyser CAPEX and operation are the most significant costs. By 2030 $310 t1 is predicted to be achievable with multiple locations below $350 t1 . At $25.4 GJ11 ) that do not have the benefit of being carbon-free.
Next Steps for the Gas Grid- Future Gas Series Part 1
Sep 2014
Publication
Policy Connect Carbon Connect and sector and Parliamentary experts have collaborated to present options for the gas grid to play a useful role in the UK’s transition to a low carbon energy system through the widespread use of low carbon gas. The report calls on Government to support the transition to a more flexible gas grid that uses various forms of gas including low carbon gases such as hydrogen and biomethane.
A Techno-economic Analysis of Ammonia-fuelled Powertrain Systems for Rail Freight
Apr 2023
Publication
All diesel-only trains in the UK will be removed from services by 2040. High volumetric density rapid refuelling ability and sophisticated experience in infrastructure and logistics make ammonia a perfect hydrogen carrying fuel for rail freight which urgently requires an economically viable solution. This study conducted a novel techno-economic study of ammonia-fuelled fuel cell powertrains to be compared with current diesel engine-based system and emerging direct hydrogen-fuelled fuel cell system. The results demonstrate that hydrogen-fuelled Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) and ammonia-fuelled PEMFCs (using an ammonia cracker) are more cost-effective in terms of Levelized Cost of Electricity. The ammonia fuel storage requires 61.5-75 % less space compared to the hydrogen storage. Although the ammonia-fuelled Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) powertrain has the highest electricity generation efficiency (56%) the overall cost requires a major reduction by 70% before it could be considered as an economically viable solution.
Effect of TPRD Diameter and Direction of Release on Hydrogen Dispersion in Underground Parking
Sep 2021
Publication
Unignited hydrogen release in underground parking could be considered inherently safer if the safety strategy to avoid the formation of the flammable hydrogen-air mixture under a ceiling is followed. This strategy excludes destructive deflagrative combustion and associated pressure and thermal effects in the case of ignition. This paper aims at understanding the effects of the thermally activated pressure relieve device (TPRD) diameter and direction of release on the build-up of hydrogen flammable concentration under the ceiling in the presence of mechanical ventilation required for underground parking. The study employs the similarity law for hydrogen jet concentration decay in a free under-expanded jet to find the lower limit of TPRD diameter that excludes the formation of a flammable mixture under the ceiling during upward release. This approach is conservative and does not include the effect of mechanical ventilation providing flow velocity around a few meters per second which is significantly below velocities in hydrogen momentum-dominated under-expanded jets. Hydrogen releases downwards under a vehicle at different angles and with different air velocities due to mechanical ventilation were investigated using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The joint effect of TPRD diameter release direction and mechanical ventilation is studied. TPRD diameters for the release of hydrogen upwards and downwards preventing the creation of flammable hydrogen-air mixture under the parking ceiling are defined for different ceiling heights and locations of TPRD above the floor. Recommendations to the design of TPRD devices to underpin the safe introduction of hydrogen fuelled vehicles in currently existing underground parking and infrastructure are formulated."
Techno Environmental Assessment of Flettner Rotor as Assistance Propulsion System for LH2 Tanker Ship Fuelled by Hydrogen
Nov 2022
Publication
This study presents a novel design and development of a 280000 m3 liquefied hydrogen tanker ship by implementing a set of 6 Flettner rotors as an assistance propulsion system in conjunction with a combined-cycle gas turbine fuelled by hydrogen as a prime mover. The study includes assessment of the technical and environmental aspects of the developed design. Furthermore an established method was applied to simulate the LH2 tanker in different voyages and conditions to investigate the benefits of harnessing wind energy to assist combined-cycle gas turbine in terms of performance and emission reduction based on engine behaviour for different voyages under loaded and unloaded normal as well as 6 % degraded engine and varying ambient conditions. The results indicate that implementing a set of 6 Flettner rotors for the LH2 tanker ship has the potential to positively impact the performance and lead to environmental benefits. A maximum contribution power of around 1.8 MW was achieved in the winter season owing to high wind speed and favourable wind direction. This power could save approximately 3.6 % of the combined-cycle gas turbine total output power (50 MW) and cause a 3.5 % reduction in NOx emissions.
Ammonia, Methane and Hydrogen for Gas Turbines
Aug 2015
Publication
Ammonia has been identified as a sustainable fuel for transport and power applications. Similar to hydrogen ammonia is a synthetic product that can be obtained either from fossil fuels biomass or other renewable sources. Since the 1960’s considerable research has taken place to develop systems capable of burning the material in gas turbines. However it is not until recently that interest in ammonia has regained some momentum in the energy agenda as it is a carbon free carrier and offers an energy density higher than compressed hydrogen. . Therefore this work examines combustion stability and emissions from gaseous ammonia blended with methane or hydrogen in gas turbines. Experiments were carried out in a High Pressure Combustion Rig under atmospheric conditions employing a bespoke generic swirl burner. OH* Chemiluminescense was used for all trials to determine reactivity of the radical. Emissions were measured and correlated to equilibrium calculations using GASEQ. Results show that efficient combustion can be achieved with high power but at very narrow equivalence ratios using both hydrogen and methane blends. Moreover low concentrations of OH radicals are observed at high hydrogen content probably as a consequence of the high NH2 production.
Critical Parameters Controlling Wettability in Hydrogen Underground Storage - An Analytical Study
Sep 2022
Publication
Hypothesis.<br/>The large-scale implementation of hydrogen economy requires immense storage spaces to facilitate the periodic storage/production cycles. Extensive modelling of hydrogen transport in porous media is required to comprehend the hydrogen-induced complexities prior to storage to avoid energy loss. Wettability of hydrogen-brine-rock systems influence flow properties (e.g. capillary pressure and relative permeability curves) and the residual saturations which are all essential for subsurface hydrogen systems.<br/>Model.<br/>This study aims to understand which parameters critically control the contact angle for hydrogen-brine-rock systems using the surface force analysis following the DLVO theory and sensitivity analysis. Furthermore the effect of roughness is studied using the Cassie-Baxter model.<br/>Findings.<br/>Our results reveal no considerable difference between H2 and other gases such as N2. Besides the inclusion of roughness highly affects the observed apparent contact angles and even lead to water-repelling features. It was observed that contact angle does not vary significantly with variations of surface charge and density at high salinity which is representative for reservoir conditions. Based on the analysis it is speculated that the influence of roughness on contact angle becomes significant at low water saturation (i.e. high capillary pressure).
Future Energy Scenarios 2021
Jul 2022
Publication
Our Future Energy Scenarios (FES) draw on hundreds of experts’ views to model four credible energy pathways for Britain over coming decades. Matthew Wright our head of strategy and regulation outlines what the 2021 outlook means for consumers society and the energy system itself.<br/>This year’s Future Energy Scenarios insight reveals a glimpse of a Britain that is powered with net zero carbon emissions.<br/>Our analysis shows that our country can achieve its legally-binding carbon reduction targets: in three out of four scenarios in the analysis the country reaches net zero carbon emissions by 2050 with Leading the Way – our most ambitious scenario – achieving it in 2047 and becoming net negative by 2050.
Environmental-economic Sustainability of Hydrogen and Ammonia Fuels for Short Sea Shipping Operations
Jan 2024
Publication
Alternative fuels of low or zero carbon content can decarbonise the shipping operations. This study aims at assessing the lifetime environmental-economic sustainability of ammonia and hydrogen as alternatives to diesel fuel for short sea shipping cargo vessels. A model is employed to calculate key performance indicators representing the lifetime financial sustainability and environmental footprint of the case ship using a realistic operating profile and considering several scenarios with different diesel substitution rates. Scenarios meeting the carbon emissions reduction targets set by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) for 2030 are identified whereas policy measures for their implementation including the emissions taxation are discussed. The derived results demonstrate that the future implementation of carbon emissions taxation in the ranges of 136–965 €/t for hydrogen and 356–2647 €/t for ammonia can support these fuels financial sustainability in shipping. This study provides insights for adopting zero-carbon fuels and as such impacts the de-risking of shipping decarbonisation.
The Socio-technical Dynamics of Net-zero Industrial Megaprojects: Outside-in and Inside-out Analyses of the Humber Industrial Cluster
Feb 2023
Publication
Although energy-intensive industries are often seen as ‘hard-to-decarbonise’ net-zero megaprojects for industrial clusters promise to improve the technical and economic feasibility of hydrogen fuel switching and carbon capture and storage (CCS). Mobilising insights from the megaproject literature this paper analyses the dynamics of an ambitious first-of-kind net-zero megaproject in the Humber industrial cluster in the United Kingdom which includes CCS and hydrogen infrastructure systems industrial fuel switching CO2 capture green and blue hydrogen production and hydrogen storage. To analyse the dynamics of this emerging megaproject the article uses a socio-technical system lens to focus on developments in technology actors and institutions. Synthesising multiple megaproject literature insights the paper develops a comprehensive framework that addresses both aggregate (‘outside-in’) developments and the endogenous (‘inside-out’) experiences and activities regarding three specific challenges: technical system integration actor coordination and institutional alignment. Drawing on an original dataset involving expert interviews (N = 46) site visits (N = 7) and document analysis the ‘outside-in’ analysis finds that the Humber megaproject has progressed rapidly from outline visions to specific technical designs enacted by new coalitions and driven by strengthening policy targets and financial support schemes. The complementary ‘inside-out’ analysis however also finds 12 alignment challenges that can delay or derail materialisation of the plans. While policies are essential aggregate drivers institutional misalignments presently also prevent project-actors from finalising design and investment decisions. Our analysis also finds important tensions between the project's high-pace delivery focus (to meet government targets) and allowing sufficient time for pilot projects learning-by-doing and design iterations.
Numerical Modelling of a Heavy-duty Diesel-hydrogen Dual-fuel Engine with Late High Pressure Hydrogen Direct Injection and Diesel Pilot
Sep 2023
Publication
Direct gaseous fuel injection in internal combustion engines is a potential strategy for improving in-cylinder combustion processes and performance while reducing emissions and increasing hydrogen energy share (HES). Through use of numerical modelling the current study explores combustion in a compression ignition engine utilising a late compression/early power stroke direct gaseous hydrogen injection ignited by a diesel pilot at up to 99% HES. The combustion process of hydrogen in this type of engine is mapped out and compared to that of the same engine using methane direct injection. Four distinct phases of combustion are found which differ from that of pure diesel operation. Interaction of the injected gas jet with the chamber walls is found to have a considerable impact on performance and emission characteristics and is a factor which needs to be explored in greater detail in future studies. Considerable performance increase and carbon-based emission reductions are identified at up to 99% HES at high load but low load performance greatly deteriorated when 95% HES was exceeded due to a much reduced diesel pilot struggling to ignite the main hydrogen injection.
Development of Hydrogen Area Classification Data for Use in Village Trials
May 2023
Publication
The natural gas industry proposes carrying out trials on limited parts of the gas network using hydrogen as an alternative to natural gas as a fuel. Ahead of these trials it is important to establish whether the zones of negligible extent that are typically applied to natural gas systems could still be considered zones of negligible extent for hydrogen. The standard IGEM/UP/16 is commonly used by the natural gas industry to carry out area classification for low pressure gas systems for example as found in boiler houses. However IGEM/UP/16 is not applicable to hydrogen. Therefore IGEM commissioned HSE’s Science Division to develop some data that could be used to feed into an area classification assessment for the village trials.<br/>This report identifies two main elements of IGEM/UP/16 which may not apply to hydrogen and suggests values for hydrogen-specific alternatives. These are the ventilation rate requirements to allow a zone to be deemed of negligible extent and the definition of a confined space.
Future Energy Scenarios 2018
Jul 2018
Publication
Welcome to our Future Energy Scenarios. These scenarios which stimulate debate and help inform the decisions that will shape our energy future have never been more important – especially when you consider the extent to which the energy landscape is being transformed.
Underground Hydrogen Storage: A UK Perspective
Oct 2023
Publication
Hydrogen is anticipated to play a key role in global decarbonization and within the UK’s pathway to achieving net zero targets. However as the production of hydrogen expands in line with government strategies a key concern is where this hydrogen will be stored for later use. This study assesses the different large-scale storage options in geological structures available to the UK and addresses the surrounding uncertainties moving towards establishing a hydrogen economy. Currently salt caverns look to be the most favourable option considering their proven experience in the storage of hydrogen especially high purity hydrogen natural sealing properties low cushion gas requirement and high charge and discharge rates. However their geographical availability within the UK can act as a major constraint. Additionally a substantial increase in the number of new caverns will be necessary to meet the UK’s storage demand. Salt caverns have greater applicability as a good short-term storage solution however storage in porous media such as depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs and saline aquifers can be seen as a long-term and strategic solution to meet energy demand and achieve energy security. Porous media storage solutions are estimated to have capacities which far exceed projected storage demand. Depleted fields have generally been well explored prior to hydrocarbon extraction. Although many saline aquifers are available offshore UK geological characterizations are still required to identify the right candidates for hydrogen storage. Currently the advantages of depleted gas reservoirs over saline aquifers make them the favoured option after salt caverns.
Price Promises, Trust Deficits and Energy Justice: Public Perceptions of Hydrogen Homes
Oct 2023
Publication
In an era characterised by political instability economic uncertainty and mounting environmental pressures hydrogen fuel is being positioned as a critical piece of the global energy security and clean energy agenda. The policy push is noteworthy in the United Kingdom where the government is targeting industrial decarbonisation via hydrogen while exploring a potential role for hydrogen-fuelled home appliances. Despite the imperative to secure social acceptance for accelerating the diffusion of low-carbon energy technologies public perceptions of hydrogen homes remain largely underexplored by the researcher community. In response this analysis draws on extensive focus group data to understand the multi-dimensional nature of social acceptance in the context of the domestic hydrogen transition. Through an integrated mixed-methods multigroup analysis the study demonstrates that socio-political and market acceptance are strongly interlinked owing to a trust deficit in the government and energy industry coupled to underlying dissatisfaction with energy markets. At the community level hydrogen homes are perceived as a potentially positive mechanism for industrial regeneration and local economic development. Households consider short-term disruptive impacts to be tolerable provided temporary disconnection from the gas grid does not exceed three days. However to strengthen social acceptance clearer communication is needed regarding the spatial dynamics and equity implications of the transition. The analysis concludes that existing trust deficits will need to be overcome which entails fulfilling not only a ‘price promise’ on the cost of hydrogen appliances but also enacting a ‘price pledge’ on energy bills. These deliverables are fundamental to securing social acceptance for hydrogen homes.
Divergent Consumer Preferences and Visions for Cooking and Heating Technologies in the United Kingdom: Make Our Homes Clean, Safe, Warm and Smart!
Aug 2023
Publication
Decarbonising the global housing stock is imperative for reaching climate change targets. In the United Kingdom hydrogen is currently being tested as a replacement fuel for natural gas which could be used to supply low-carbon energy to parts of the country. Transitioning the residential sector towards a net-zero future will call for an inclusive understanding of consumer preferences for emerging technologies. In response this paper explores consumer attitudes towards domestic cooking and heating technologies and energy appliances of the future which could include a role for hydrogen hobs and boilers in UK homes. To access qualitative evidence on this topic we conducted ten online focus groups (N = 58) with members of the UK public between February and April 2022. The study finds that existing gas users wish to preserve the best features of gas cooking such as speed responsiveness and controllability but also desire the potential safety and aesthetic benefits of electric systems principally induction hobs. Meanwhile future heating systems should ensure thermal comfort ease of use energy efficiency and smart performance while providing space savings and noise reduction alongside demonstrable green benefits. Mixed-methods multigroup analysis suggests divergence between support levels for hydrogen homes which implies a degree of consumer heterogeneity. Foremost we find that domestic hydrogen acceptance is positively associated with interest and engagement with renewable energy and fuel poverty pressures. We conclude that internalising the perspectives of consumers is critical to enabling constructive socio-technical imaginaries for low-carbon domestic energy futures.
Energy System Changes in 1.5 °C, Well Below 2 °C and 2 °C Scenarios
Dec 2018
Publication
Meeting the Paris Agreement's goal to limit global warming to well below 2 °C and pursuing efforts towards 1.5 °C is likely to require more rapid and fundamental energy system changes than the previously-agreed 2 °C target. Here we assess over 200 integrated assessment model scenarios which achieve 2 °C and well-below 2 °C targets drawn from the IPCC's fifth assessment report database combined with a set of 1.5 °C scenarios produced in recent years. We specifically assess differences in a range of near-term indicators describing CO2 emissions reductions pathways changes in primary energy and final energy across the economy's major sectors in addition to more detailed metrics around the use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) negative emissions low-carbon electricity and hydrogen.
Cryogenic Hydrogen Jet and Flame for Clean Energy Applications: Progress and Challenges
May 2023
Publication
Industries across the world are making the transition to net-zero carbon emissions as government policies and strategies are proposed to mitigate the impact of climate change on the planet. As a result the use of hydrogen as an energy source is becoming an increasingly popular field of research particularly in the aviation sector where an alternative green renewable fuel to the traditional hydrocarbon fuels such as kerosene is essential. Hydrogen can be stored in multiple ways including compressed gaseous hydrogen cryo-compressed hydrogen and cryogenic liquid hydrogen. The infrastructure and storage of hydrogen will play a pivotal role in the realisation of large-scale conversion from traditional fuels with safety being a key consideration. This paper provides a review on previous work undertaken to study the characterisation of both unignited and ignited hydrogen jets which are fundamental phenomena for the utilisation of hydrogen. This includes work that focuses on the near-field flow structure dispersion in the far-field ignition and flame characteristics with multi-physics. The safety considerations are also included. The theoretical models and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) multiphase and reactive flow approaches are discussed. Then an overview of previous experimental work is provided before focusing the review on the existing computational results with comparison to experiments. Upon completion of this review it is highlighted that the complex near-field physics and flow phenomena are areas lacking in research. The near-field flow properties and characteristics are of significant importance with respect to the ignition and combustion of hydrogen.
Life Cycle Assessment of an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle that Employs Hydrogen Fuel Cell
Aug 2023
Publication
In recent years there has been a significant increase in the adoption of autonomous vehicles for marine and submarine missions. The advancement of emerging imaging navigation and communication technologies has greatly expanded the range of operational capabilities and opportunities available. The ENDURUNS project is a European research endeavor focused on identifying strategies for achieving minimal environmental impact. To measure these facts this article evaluates the product impacts employing the Life Cycle Assessment methodology for the first time following the ISO 14040 standard. In this analysis the quantitative values of Damage and Environmental Impact using the Eco-Indicator 99 methodology in SimaPro software are presented. The results report that the main contributors in environmental impact terms have been placed during the manufacturing phase. Thus one of the challenges is accomplished avoiding the use phase emissions that are the focus to reduce nowadays in the marine industry.
Synergistic Integration of Hydrogen Energy Economy with UK’s Sustainable Development Goals: A Holistic Approach to Enhancing Safety and Risk Mitigation
Oct 2023
Publication
Hydrogen is gaining prominence as a sustainable energy source in the UK aligning with the country’s commitment to advancing sustainable development across diverse sectors. However a rigorous examination of the interplay between the hydrogen economy and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is imperative. This study addresses this imperative by comprehensively assessing the risks associated with hydrogen production storage transportation and utilization. The overarching aim is to establish a robust framework that ensures the secure deployment and operation of hydrogen-based technologies within the UK’s sustainable development trajectory. Considering the unique characteristics of the UK’s energy landscape infrastructure and policy framework this paper presents practical and viable recommendations to facilitate the safe and effective integration of hydrogen energy into the UK’s SDGs. To facilitate sophisticated decision making it proposes using an advanced Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) tool incorporating regret theory and a 2-tuple spherical linguistic environment. This tool enables a nuanced decision-making process yielding actionable insights. The analysis reveals that Incident Reporting and Learning Robust Regulatory Framework Safety Standards and Codes are pivotal safety factors. At the same time Clean Energy Access Climate Action and Industry Innovation and Infrastructure are identified as the most influential SDGs. This information provides valuable guidance for policymakers industry stakeholders and regulators. It empowers them to make well-informed strategic decisions and prioritize actions that bolster safety and sustainable development as the UK transitions towards a hydrogen-based energy system. Moreover the findings underscore the varying degrees of prominence among different SDGs. Notably SDG 13 (Climate Action) exhibits relatively lower overall distinction at 0.0066 and a Relation value of 0.0512 albeit with a substantial impact. In contrast SDG 7 (Clean Energy Access) and SDG 9 (Industry Innovation and Infrastructure) demonstrate moderate prominence levels (0.0559 and 0.0498 respectively) each with its unique influence emphasizing their critical roles in the UK’s pursuit of a sustainable hydrogen-based energy future.
No more items...