Norway

With the aim of reducing carbon emissions and seeking independence from Russian gas in the wake of the conflict in Ukraine the use of hydrogen in the European Union is expected to rise in the future. In this regard hydrogen transport via pipeline will become increasingly crucial either through the utilization of existing natural gas infrastructure or the construction of new dedicated hydrogen pipelines. This study investigates the effects of hydrogen blending in existing pipelines on the European energy system by the year 2050 by introducing hydrogen blending sensitivities to the Global Energy System Model (GENeSYS-MOD). Results indicate that hydrogen demand in Europe is inelastic and limited by its high costs and specific use cases with hydrogen production increasing by 0.17% for 100%-blending allowed compared to no blending allowed. The availability of hydrogen blending has been found to impact regional hydrogen production and trade with countries that can utilize existing natural gas pipelines such as Norway experiencing an increase in hydrogen and synthetic gas exports from 44.0 TWh up to 105.9 TWh in 2050 as the proportion of blending increases. Although the influence of blending on the overall production and consumption of hydrogen in Europe is minimal the impacts on the location of production and dependence on imports must be thoroughly evaluated in future planning efforts.

This paper studies fast fueling of gaseous hydrogen into large hydrogen (H2) tanks suitable for maritime applications. Three modeling methods have been developed and evaluated: (1) Two-dimensional computational fluid dynamic (CFD) modeling (2) One-dimensional wall discretized modeling and (3) Zero-dimensional modeling. A detailed 2D CFD simulation of a small H2-tank was performed and validated with data from literature and then used to simulate a large H2-tank. Results from the 2D-model show non-uniform temperature distribution inside the large tank but not in the small H2-tank. The 1D-model can predict the mean temperature in small H2-tanks but not the inhomogeneous temperature field in large H2-tanks. The 0D-model is suitable as a screening tool to obtain rough estimates. Results from the modeling of the large H2-tank show that the heat transfer to the wall during fast filling is inhibited by heat conduction in the wall which leads to an unacceptably high mean hydrogen temperature.

This paper presents model predictions obtained with the CFD tool FLACS for hydrogen releases and vented deflagrations in containers and larger enclosures. The paper consists of two parts. The first part compares experimental results and model predictions for two test cases: experiments performed by Gexcon in 20-foot ISO containers (volume 33 m3 ) as part of the HySEA project and experiments conducted by SRI International and Sandia National Laboratories in a scaled warehouse geometry (volume 45.4 m3 ). The second part explores the use of the model system validated in the first part to accidental releases of hydrogen from forklift trucks inside a full-scale warehouse geometry (32 400 m3 ). The results demonstrate the importance of using realistic and reasonably accurate geometry models of the systems under consideration when performing CFD-based risk assessment studies. The discussion highlights the significant inherent uncertainty associated with quantitative risk assessments for vented hydrogen deflagrations in complex geometries. The suggestions for further work include a pragmatic approach for developing empirical correlations for pressure loads from vented hydrogen deflagrations in industrial warehouses with hydrogen-powered forklift trucks.

HyResponder is a European Hydrogen Train the Trainer programme for responders. This paper describes the key outputs of the project and the steps taken to develop and implement a long-term sustainable train the trainer programme in hydrogen safety for responders across Europe and beyond. This FCH2 JU (now Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking) funded project has built on the successful outcomes of the previous HyResponse project. HyResponder has developed further and updated educational operational and virtual reality training for trainers of responders to reflect the state-of-the-art in hydrogen safety including liquid hydrogen and expand the programme across Europe and specifically within the 10 countries represented directly within the project consortium: Austria Belgium the Czech Republic France Germany Italy Norway Spain Switzerland and the United Kingdom. For the first time four levels of educational materials from fire fighter through to specialist have been developed. The digital training resources are available on the e-Platform (https://hyresponder.eu/e-platform/). The revised European Emergency Response Guide is now available to all stakeholders. The resources are intended to be used to support national training programs. They are available in 8 languages: Czech Dutch English French German Italian Norwegian and Spanish. Through the HyResponder activities trainers from across Europe have undertaken joint actions which are in turn being used to inform the delivery of regional and national training both within and beyond the project. The established pan-European network of trainers is shaping the future in the important for inherently safer deployment of hydrogen systems and infrastructure across Europe and enhancing the reach and impact of the programme.

Ahead of a potential large-scale implementation of hydrogen as an energy carrier in society safety regulation systems should be in place to provide a systematic consideration of safety related concerns. Knowledge is essential for regulatory activities. At the same time it is challenging to obtain sufficient information when regulating emerging technologies – it may be difficult to address informational shortcomings in regulatory matters as analysts can be prone to under-communicate the significance of uncertainties. Furthermore Strength of Knowledge (SoK) has been developed to address the quality of background knowledge in risk analyses. An example of a SoK framework is based on the following four conditions that is used to assess whether knowledge can be considered weak or strong: the issue of simplifications availability and reliability of data consensus among experts and general understanding of the phenomena in question. In theory this concept seems relevant for the introduction of hydrogen as an energy carrier mainly because there is little historical data to develop sound analyses creating uncertainties. However there are no clear-cut guidelines as to how knowledge gaps should be handled in the development of regulatory requirements. In this paper we consider the relevance of a specific approach for SoK assessment in the context of safety and security regulation of hydrogen as an energy carrier in society. We conclude that there are some challenges with the proposed framework and argue that further research should be conducted to identify or develop a method for handling uncertainties in regulatory processes regarding hydrogen systems as energy carriers in societies.

Social risk is a comprehensive concept that considers not only internal/external physical risks but also risks (which are multiple varied and diverse) associated with social activity. It should be considered from diverse perspectives and requires a comprehensive evaluation framework that takes into account the synergistic impact of each element on others rather than evaluating each risk individually. Social risk assessment is an approach that is not limited to internal system risk from an engineering perspective but also considers the stakeholders development stage and societal readiness and resilience to change. This study aimed to introduce a social risk approach to assess the public safety of large-scale hydrogen systems. Guidelines for comprehensive social risk assessment were developed to conduct appropriate risk assessments for advanced science and technology activities with high uncertainties to predict major impacts on society before an accident occurs and to take measures to mitigate the damage and to ensure good governance are in place to facilitate emergency response and recovery in addition to preventive measures. In a case study this approach was applied to a hydrogen refueling station in Japan and risk-based multidisciplinary approaches were introduced. These approaches can be an effective supporting tool for social implementation with respect to large-scale hydrogen systems such as liquefied hydrogen storage tanks. The guidelines for social risk assessment of large-scale hydrogen systems are under the International Energy Agency Technology Collaboration Program Hydrogen Safety Task 43. This study presents potential case studies of social risk assessment for large-scale hydrogen systems for future.

Widespread use of hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels as energy carriers in society may enable the gradual replacement of fossil fuels by renewable energy sources. Although the development and deployment of the associated technologies and infrastructures represent a considerable bottleneck it is generally acknowledged that neither the technical feasibility nor the economic viability alone will determine the extent of the future use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Public perception beliefs awareness and knowledge about hydrogen will play a significant role in the further development of the hydrogen economy. To this end the present study examines public perception and awareness of hydrogen in Norway. The approach adopted entailed an open-ended question examining spontaneous associations with the term ‘hydrogen’. The question was fielded to 2276 participants in Wave 25 of the Norwegian Citizen Panel (NCP) an on-line panel that derives random samples from the general population registry. The analysis focused on classifying the responses into negative associations (i.e. barriers towards widespread implementation of hydrogen in society) neutral associations (e.g. basic facts) and positive associations (i.e. drivers towards widespread implementation of hydrogen in society). Each of the 2194 responses were individually assessed by five researchers. The majority of the responses highlighted neutral associations using words such as ‘gas’ ‘water’ and ‘element’. When considering barriers vs. drivers the overall responses tend towards positive associations. Many respondents perceive hydrogen as a clean and environmentally friendly fuel and hydrogen technologies are often associated with the future. The negative sentiments were typically associated with words such as ‘explosive’ ‘hazardous’ and ‘expensive’. Despite an increase in the mentioning of safety-related properties relative to a previous study in the same region the frequency of such references was rather low (4%). The responses also reveal various misconceptions such as hydrogen as a prospective ‘source’ of clean energy.

The European Union aims to increase its climate ambition and achieve climate neutrality by 2050. This necessitates expanding offshore wind energy and green hydrogen production especially for hard-to-abate industrial sectors. A study examines the impact of green hydrogen on offshore wind projects specifically focusing on a potential future North Sea offshore grid. The study utilizes data from the TYNDP 2020 Global Ambition scenario 2040 considering several European countries. It aims to assess new transmission and generation capacity utilization and understand the influencing factors. The findings show that incorporating green hydrogen production increases offshore wind utilization and capture prices. The study estimates that by 2040 the levelized cost of hydrogen could potentially decrease to e1.2-1.6/kg H2 assuming low-cost electricity supply and declining capital costs of electrolysers. These results demonstrate the potential benefits and cost reductions of integrating green hydrogen production into North Sea offshore wind projects.