Norway

Green hydrogen could play a crucial role in the maritime industry’s journey towards decarbonization. Produced through electrolysis hydrogen is emission free and could be widely available across the globe in future – as a marine fuel or a key enabler for synthetic fuels. Many in shipping recognize hydrogen’s potential as a fuel but the barriers to realizing this potential are substantial.<br/>The 1st Edition of the ‘Handbook for Hydrogen-fuelled Vessels’ offers a road map towards safe hydrogen operations using fuel cells. It details how to navigate the complex requirements for design and construction and it covers the most important aspects of hydrogen operations such as safety and risk mitigation engineering details for hydrogen systems and implementation phases for maritime applications based on the current regulatory Alternative Design process framework.<br/>This publication is the result of the 1st phase of the DNV-led Joint Industry Project MarHySafe which has brought together a consortium of 26 leading company and associations. The project is ongoing and this publication will be continually updated to reflect the latest industry expertise on hydrogen as ship fuel.

In this research we conducted water electrolysis experiments of a carbon black (CB) based sodium sulfate electrolyte using a Hoffman voltameter. The main objective was to investigate hydrogen production in such systems as well as analyse the electrical properties and thermal properties of nanofluids. A halogen lamp mimicking solar energy was used as a radiation source and a group of comparative tests were also conducted with different irradiation areas. The results showed that by using CB and light it was possible to increase the hydrogen production rate. The optimal CB concentration was 0.1 wt %. At this concentration the hydrogen production rate increased by 30.37% after 20 min of electrolysis. Hence we show that using CB in electrolytes irradiated by solar energy could save the electrical energy necessary for electrolysis processes.

Steam methane reforming with CO2 capture (blue hydrogen) and water electrolysis based on renewable electricity (green hydrogen) are commonly assumed to be the main supply options in a future hydrogen economy. However another promising method is emerging in the form of natural gas pyrolysis (turquoise hydrogen) with pure carbon as a valuable by-product. To better understand the potential of turquoise hydrogen this study presents a techno-economic assessment of a molten salt pyrolysis process. Results show that moderate reactor pressures around 12 bar are optimal and that reactor size must be limited by accepting reactor performance well below the thermodynamic equilibrium. Despite this challenge stemming from slow reaction rates the simplicity of the molten salt pyrolysis process delivers high efficiencies and promising economics. In the long-term carbon could be produced for 200–300 €/ton granting access to high-volume markets in the metallurgical and chemical process industries. Such a scenario makes turquoise hydrogen a promising alternative to blue hydrogen in regions with public resistance to CO2 transport and storage. In the medium-term expensive first-of-a-kind plants could produce carbon around 400 €/ton if hydrogen prices are set by conventional blue hydrogen production. Pure carbon at this cost level can access smaller high-value markets such as carbon anodes and graphite ensuring profitable operation even for first movers. In conclusion the economic potential of molten salt pyrolysis is high and further demonstration and scale-up efforts are strongly recommended.

Worldwide energy systems are experiencing a transition to more sustainable systems. According to the Hydrogen Roadmap Europe (FCH EU 2019) hydrogen will play an important role in future energy systems due to its ability to support sustainability goals and will account for approximately 13% of the total energy mix in the coming future. Correct hydrogen supply chain (HSC) planning is therefore vital to enable a sustainable transition. However due to the operational characteristics of the HSC its planning is complicated. Renewable hydrogen supply can be diverse: Hydrogen can be produced de-centrally with renewables such as wind and solar energy or centrally by using electricity generated from a hydro power plant with a large volume. Similarly demand for hydrogen can also be diverse with many new applications such as fuels for fuel cell electrical vehicles and electricity generation feedstocks in industrial processes and heating for buildings. The HSC consists of various stages (production storage distribution and applications) in different forms with strong interdependencies which further increase HSC complexity. Finally planning of an HSC depends on the status of hydrogen adoption and market development and on how mature technologies are and both factors are characterised by high uncertainties. Directly adapting the traditional approaches of supply chain planning for HSCs is insufficient. Therefore in this study we develop a planning matrix with related planning tasks leveraging a systematic literature review to cope with the characteristics of HSCs. We focus only on renewable hydrogen due to its relevance to the future low-carbon economy. Furthermore we outline an agenda for future research from the supply chain management perspective in order to support HSC development considering the different phases of HSCs adoption and market development.

Smooth power injection is one of the possible services that modern wind farms could provide in the not-so-far future for which energy storage is required. Indeed this is one among the three possible operations identified by the International Energy Agency (IEA)-Hydrogen Implementing Agreement (HIA) within the Task 24 final report that may promote their integration into the main grid in particular when paired to hydrogen-based energy storages. In general energy storage can mitigate the inherent unpredictability of wind generation providing that they are deployed with appropriate control algorithms. On the contrary in the case of no storage wind farm operations would be strongly affected as well as their economic performances since the penalty fees wind farm owners/operators incur in case of mismatches between the contracted power and that actually delivered. This paper proposes a Model Predictive Control (MPC) algorithm that operates a Hydrogen-based Energy Storage System (HESS) consisting of one electrolyzer one fuel cell and one tank paired to a wind farm committed to smooth power injection into the grid. The MPC relies on Mixed-Logic Dynamic (MLD) models of the electrolyzer and the fuel cell in order to leverage their advanced features and handles appropriate cost functions in order to account for the operating costs the potential value of hydrogen as a fuel and the penalty fee mechanism that may negatively affect the expected profits generated by the injection of smooth power. Numerical simulations are conducted by considering wind generation profiles from a real wind farm in the center-south of Italy and spot prices according to the corresponding market zone. The results show the impact of each cost term on the performances of the controller and how they can be effectively combined in order to achieve some reasonable trade-off. In particular it is highlighted that a static choice of the corresponding weights can lead to not very effective handling of the effects given by the combination of the system conditions with the various exogenous’ while a dynamic choice may suit the purpose instead. Moreover the simulations show that the developed models and the set-up mathematical program can be fruitfully leveraged for inferring indications on the devices’ sizing.

This article presents findings from a representative survey fielded through the Norwegian Citizen Panel examining public perceptions of hydrogen fuel and its different production methods. Although several countries including Norway have strategies to increase the production of hydrogen fuel our results indicate that hydrogen as an energy carrier and its different production methods are still unknown to a large part of the public. A common misunderstanding seems to be confusing ‘hydrogen fuel’ in general with environmentally friendly ‘green hydrogen’. Results from a survey experiment (N = 1906) show that production method is important for public acceptance. On a five-point acceptance scale respondents score on average 3.9 for ‘green’ hydrogen which is produced from renewable energy sources. The level of acceptance is significantly lower for ‘blue’ (3.2) and ‘grey’ (2.3) hydrogen when respondents are informed that these are produced from coal oil or natural gas. Public support for hydrogen fuel in general as well as the different production methods is also related to their level of worry about climate change gender and political affiliation. Widespread misunderstandings regarding ‘green’ hydrogen production could potentially fuel public resistance as new ‘blue’ or ‘grey’ projects develop. Our results indicate a need for clearer communication from the government and developers regarding production methods to avoid distrust and potential public backfire.

Hydrogen is expected to play a key role in the future as a clean energy source that can mitigate global warming. It can also contribute significantly to reducing the imbalance between energy supply and demand posed by deploying renewable energy. However the infrastructure is not ready for the direct use of hydrogen and largescale storage facilities are needed to store the excess hydrogen production. Geological formations particularly salt caverns seem to be a practical option for this large-scale storage as there is already good experience storing hydrocarbons in caverns worldwide. Salt is known to be ductile impermeable and inert to natural gas. Some cases of hydrogen storage in salt caverns in the United States the United Kingdom and Germany reinforce the idea that salt caverns could be a viable option for underground hydrogen storage especially when the challenges and uncertainties associated with hydrogen storage in porous media are considered. However cavern con struction and management can be challenging when salt deposits are not completely pure and mixed with nonsoluble strata. This review summarises the challenges associated with hydrogen storage in salt caverns and suggests some potential mitigation strategies linked to geomechanical and geochemical interactions. The Zechstein salt group in Northern Europe seems to be a feasible geological site for hydrogen storage but the effect of salt impurity particularly at deep offshore sites such as in the Norwegian North Sea should be carefully analysed. It appears that mechanical integrity geochemical reactions hydrogen loss by halophilic bacteria leaching issues and potential hydrogen diffusion are among the major issues when the internal structure of the salt is not pure.

Norwegian offshore wind farms may be able to supply power to offshore oil and gas platforms in the near future thanks to the expeditious development of offshore wind technology. This would result in a reduction in CO2 emissions from oil and gas offshore installations which are currently powered predominantly by gas turbines. The challenge with using wind power is that offshore oil and gas installations require a fairly constant and stable source of power whereas wind power typically exhibits significant fluctuations over time. The purpose of this study is to perform a technical feasibility evaluation of using wind power to supply an offshore oil and gas installation on the basis of dynamic process simulations. Throughout the study only the topside processing system is considered since it is the most energy-intensive part of an oil and gas facility. An offshore field on the Norwegian Continental Shelf is used as a case study. The results indicate that when the processing system operates in steady-state conditions it cannot be powered solely by wind energy and another power source is required to compensate for low wind power generation intervals. An alternative would be to store wind energy during periods of high generation (e.g. by producing hydrogen or ammonia) and use it during periods of low generation. Utilizing energy storage methods wind energy can be continuously used for longer periods of time and provide a suitable constant power source for the studied case. Higher constant power can also be provided by increasing the efficiency of energy recovery and storage processes. Alternatively these two technologies may be integrated with gas turbines if the required storage cannot be provided or higher power is required. It was estimated that the integration of wind energy could result in noticeable reductions in CO2 emissions for the case study. Additionally according to the results the production storage and reuse of hydrogen and ammonia on-site may be viable options for supplying power.

Anion exchange membrane water electrolysis (AEMWE) has acquired substantial consideration as a cost-effective hydrogen production technology. The anion ionomer content in the catalyst layers during hydrogen and oxygen evolution reaction (HER and OER) is of ultimate significance. Herein an in-situ half-cell analysis with reference electrodes was carried out for simultaneous potential measurements and identification of the influence of the anion exchange ionomer (AEI) content on anode and cathode performance. The measured half-cell potentials proved the influence of AEI content on the catalytic activity of HER and OER which was supported by the rotating disk electrode (RDE) measurements. Cathode overpotential of Ni/C was not negligible and more affected by the AEI content than anode with the optimized AEI content of 10 wt% while NiO anode OER overpotential was independent of the AEI content. For the same AEI content PGM catalysts showed higher electroactivity than Ni-based catalysts for HER and OER and the cathode catalyst's intrinsic activity is of high importance in the AEM electrolysis operation. Post-mortem analysis by SEM mapping of both AEI and catalyst distributions on the electrode surface showed the effect of AEI loading on the catalyst morphology which could be related to the electrode performance.

Palladium (Pd) membranes are a promising enabling technology for power generation and hydrogen production with CO2 capture. SINTEF has developed and patented a flexible technology to produce Pd-alloy membranes that significantly improves flux and thereby reduces material costs. Reinertsen AS and SINTEF aim to demonstrate the Pd membrane technology for H2 separation on a side stream of the Statoil Methanol Plant at Tjeldbergodden Norway. In the present article we present the upscaling of the membrane manufacturing process together with the membrane module and skid design and construction.