Norway
An Innovative and Comprehensive Approach for the Consequence Analysis of Liquid Hydrogen Vessel Explosions
Oct 2020
Publication
Hydrogen is one of the most suitable solutions to replace hydrocarbons in the future. Hydrogen consumption is expected to grow in the next years. Hydrogen liquefaction is one of the processes that allows for increase of hydrogen density and it is suggested when a large amount of substance must be stored or transported. Despite being a clean fuel its chemical and physical properties often arise concerns about the safety of the hydrogen technologies. A potentially critical scenario for the liquid hydrogen (LH2) tanks is the catastrophic rupture causing a consequent boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) with consequent overpressure fragments projection and eventually a fireball. In this work all the BLEVE consequence typologies are evaluated through theoretical and analytical models. These models are validated with the experimental results provided by the BMW care manufacturer safety tests conducted during the 1990’s. After the validation the most suitable methods are selected to perform a blind prediction study of the forthcoming LH2 BLEVE experiments of the Safe Hydrogen fuel handling and Use for Efficient Implementation (SH2IFT) project. The models drawbacks together with the uncertainties and the knowledge gap in LH2 physical explosions are highlighted. Finally future works on the modelling activity of the LH2 BLEVE are suggested.
Effect of Mechanical Ventilation on Accidental Hydrogen Releases - Large Scale Experiments
Sep 2021
Publication
This paper presents a series of experiments on the effectiveness of existing mechanical ventilation systems during accidental hydrogen releases in confined spaces like underground garages. The purpose was to find the mass flow rate limit hence the TPRD diameter limit that will not require a change in the ventilation system. The experiments were performed in a 40 ft ISO container in Norway and hydrogen gas was used in all experiments. The forced ventilation system was installed with a standard outlet 315 mm diameter. The ventilation parameters during the investigation were British Standard with 10 ACH and British Standard with 6 ACH. The hydrogen releases were obtained through 0.5 mm and 1 mm nozzle from different hydrogen reservoir pressures. Both types of mass flow: constant and blowdown were included in the experimental matrix. The analysis of hydrogen concentration of created hydrogen cloud in the container shows the influence of the forced ventilation on hydrogen releases together with TPRD diameter and reservoir pressure. The generated experimental data will be used to validate a CFD model in the next step.
Experimental Study of Hydrogen Production Using Electrolyte Nanofluids with a Simulated Light Source
Dec 2021
Publication
In this research we conducted water electrolysis experiments of a carbon black (CB) based sodium sulfate electrolyte using a Hoffman voltameter. The main objective was to investigate hydrogen production in such systems as well as analyse the electrical properties and thermal properties of nanofluids. A halogen lamp mimicking solar energy was used as a radiation source and a group of comparative tests were also conducted with different irradiation areas. The results showed that by using CB and light it was possible to increase the hydrogen production rate. The optimal CB concentration was 0.1 wt %. At this concentration the hydrogen production rate increased by 30.37% after 20 min of electrolysis. Hence we show that using CB in electrolytes irradiated by solar energy could save the electrical energy necessary for electrolysis processes.
Decarbonizing Primary Steel Production : Techno-economic Assessment of a Hydrogen Based Green Steel Production Plant in Norway
Mar 2022
Publication
High electricity cost is the biggest challenge faced by the steel industry in transitioning to hydrogen based steelmaking. A steel plant in Norway could have access to cheap emission free electricity high-quality iron ore skilled manpower and the European market. An open-source model for conducting techno-economic assessment of a hydrogen based steel manufacturing plant operating in Norway has been developed in this work. Levelized cost of production (LCOP) for two plant configurations; one procuring electricity at a fixed price and the other procuring electricity from the day-ahead electricity markets with different electrolyzer capacity were analyzed. LCOP varied from $622/tls to $722/tls for the different plant configurations. Procuring electricity from the day-ahead electricity markets could reduce the LCOP by 15%. Increasing the electrolyzer capacity reduced the operational costs but increased the capital investments reducing the overall advantage. Sensitivity analysis revealed that electricity price and iron ore price are the major contributors to uncertainty for configurations with fixed electricity prices. For configurations with higher electrolyzer capacity changes in the iron ore price and parameters related to capital investment were found to affect the LCOP significantly.
Anion Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis from Catalyst Design to the Membrane Electrode Assembly
Jul 2022
Publication
Anion exchange membrane (AEM) electrolysis aims to combine the benefits of alkaline electrolysis such as stability of the cheap catalyst and advantages of proton-exchange membrane systems like the ability to operate at differential pressure fast dynamic response low energy losses and higher current density. However as of today AEM electrolysis is limited by AEMs exhibiting insufficient ionic conductivity as well as lower catalyst activity and stability. Herein recent developments and outlook of AEM electrolysis such as cost-efficient transition metal catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction and oxygen evolution reaction AEMs ionomer electrolytes ionomer catalyst–electrolyte interaction and membrane-electrode assembly performance and stability are described.
Direct Numerical Simulation of Hydrogen Combustion at Auto-ignitive Conditions Ignition, Stability and Turbulent Reaction-front Velocity
Mar 2021
Publication
Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS) are performed to investigate the process of spontaneous ignition of hydrogen flames at laminar turbulent adiabatic and non-adiabatic conditions. Mixtures of hydrogen and vitiated air at temperatures representing gas-turbine reheat combustion are considered. Adiabatic spontaneous ignition processes are investigated first providing a quantitative characterization of stable and unstable flames. Results indicate that in hydrogen reheat combustion compressibility effects play a key role in flame stability and that unstable ignition and combustion are consistently encountered for reactant temperatures close to the mixture’s characteristic crossover temperature. Furthermore it is also found that the characterization of the adiabatic processes is also valid in the presence of non-adiabaticity due to wall heat-loss. Finally a quantitative characterization of the instantaneous fuel consumption rate within the reaction front is obtained and of its ability at auto-ignitive conditions to advance against the approaching turbulent flow of the reactants for a range of different turbulence intensities temperatures and pressure levels.
Scaling Factors for Channel Width Variations in Tree-like Flow Field Patterns for Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells - An Experimental Study
Apr 2021
Publication
To have a uniform distribution of reactants is an advantage to a fuel cell. We report results for such a distributor with tree-like flow field plates (FFP). Numerical simulations have shown that the width scaling parameters of tree-like patterns in FFPs used in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) reduces the viscous dissipation in the channels. In this study experimental investigations were conducted on a 2-layer FF plate possessing a tree-like FF pattern which was CNC milled on high-quality graphite. Three FF designs of different width scaling parameters were employed. I–V curves power curves and impedance spectra were generated at 70% 60% and 50% relative humidity (25 cm2 active area) and compared to those obtained from a conventional 1-channel serpentine FF. It was found that the FF design with a width scaling factor of 0.917 in the inlet and 0.925 in the outlet pattern exhibited the best peak power out of the three designs (only 11% - 0.08 W/cm2 lower than reference serpentine FF). Results showed that a reduction of the viscous dissipation in the flow pattern was not directly linked to a PEMFC performance increase. It was found that water accumulation together with a slight increase in single PEMFC resistance were the main reasons for the reduced power density. As further improvements a reduction of the number of branching generation levels and width scaling factor were recommended.
Examining the Role of Safety in Communication Concerning Emerging Hydrogen Technologies by Selected Groups of Stakeholders
Sep 2021
Publication
Governments and other stakeholders actively promote and facilitate the development and deployment of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. Various strategy documents and energy forecasts outline the environmental and societal benefits of the prospective hydrogen economy. At the same time the safety related properties of hydrogen imply that it is not straightforward to achieve and document the same level of safety for hydrogen systems compared to conventional fuels. Severe accidents can have major impact on the development of energy technologies. The stakes will increase significantly as the use of hydrogen shifts from controlled environments in industrial facilities to the public domain and as the transport-related consumption extends from passenger cars and buses to trains ships and airplanes. Widespread deployment of hydrogen as an energy carrier in society will require massive investments. This implies commercial and political commitment involvement and influence on research priorities and decision-making. The legacy from accidents and the messages communicated by influential stakeholders impact not only how the public perceives hydrogen technologies but also governmental policies the development of regulations codes and standards (RCS) and ultimately the measures adopted for preventing and mitigating accidents. This paper explores whether and how selected aspects of safety are considered when distinct groups of stakeholders frame the hydrogen economy. We assess to what extent the communication is consistent with the current state-of-the-art in hydrogen safety and the contemporary strength of knowledge in risk assessments for hydrogen systems. The approach adopted entails semi-quantitative text analysis and close reading to highlight variations between diverse groups of stakeholders. The results indicate a bias in the framing of the safety-related aspects of the hydrogen economy towards procedural organisational and societal measures of risk reduction at the expense of well-known challenges and knowledge gaps associated with the implications of fundamental safety-related properties of hydrogen.
Reduction of Maritime GHG Emissions and the Potential Role of E-fuels
Nov 2021
Publication
Maritime transport accounts for around 3% of global anthropogenic Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Well-to-Wake) and these emissions must be reduced with at least 50% in absolute values by 2050 to contribute to the ambitions of the Paris agreement (2015). Zero carbon fuels made from renewable sources (hydro wind or solar) are by many seen as the most promising option to deliver the desired GHG reductions. For the maritime sector these fuels come in two forms: First as E-Hydrogen or E-Ammonia; Second as Hydrocarbon E-fuels in the form of E-Diesel E-LNG or E-Methanol. We evaluate emissions energy use and cost for E-fuels and find that the most robust path to these fuels is through dual-fuel engines and systems to ensure flexibility in fuel selection to prepare for growing supplies and lower risks. The GHG reduction potential of E-fuels depends entirely on abundant renewable electricity.
Finding Synergy Between Renewables and Coal: Flexible Power and Hydrogen Production from Advanced IGCC Plants with Integrated CO2 Capture
Feb 2021
Publication
Variable renewable energy (VRE) has seen rapid growth in recent years. However VRE deployment requires a fleet of dispatchable power plants to supply electricity during periods with limited wind and sunlight. These plants will operate at reduced utilization rates that pose serious economic challenges. To address this challenge this paper presents the techno-economic assessment of flexible power and hydrogen production from integrated gasification combined cycles (IGCC) employing the gas switching combustion (GSC) technology for CO2 capture and membrane assisted water gas shift (MAWGS) reactors for hydrogen production. Three GSC-MAWGS-IGCC plants are evaluated based on different gasification technologies: Shell High Temperature Winkler and GE. These advanced plants are compared to two benchmark IGCC plants one without and one with CO2 capture. All plants utilize state-of-the-art H-class gas turbines and hot gas clean-up for maximum efficiency. Under baseload operation the GSC plants returned CO2 avoidance costs in the range of 24.9–36.9 €/ton compared to 44.3 €/ton for the benchmark. However the major advantage of these plants is evident in the more realistic mid-load scenario. Due to the ability to keep operating and sell hydrogen to the market during times of abundant wind and sun the best GSC plants offer a 6–11%-point higher annual rate of return than the benchmark plant with CO2 capture. This large economic advantage shows that the flexible GSC plants are a promising option for balancing VRE provided a market for the generated clean hydrogen exists.
Hydrogen-based Systems for Integration of Renewable Energy in Power Systems: Achievements and Perspectives
Jul 2021
Publication
This paper is a critical review of selected real-world energy storage systems based on hydrogen ranging from lab-scale systems to full-scale systems in continuous operation. 15 projects are presented with a critical overview of their concept and performance. A review of research related to power electronics control systems and energy management strategies has been added to integrate the findings with outlooks usually described in separate literature. Results show that while hydrogen energy storage systems are technically feasible they still require large cost reductions to become commercially attractive. A challenge that affects the cost per unit of energy is the low energy efficiency of some of the system components in real-world operating conditions. Due to losses in the conversion and storage processes hydrogen energy storage systems lose anywhere between 60 and 85% of the incoming electricity with current technology. However there are currently very few alternatives for long-term storage of electricity in power systems so the interest in hydrogen for this application remains high from both industry and academia. Additionally it is expected that the share of intermittent renewable energy in power systems will increase in the coming decades. This could lead to technology development and cost reductions within hydrogen technology if this technology is needed to store excess renewable energy. Results from the reviewed projects indicate that the best solution from a technical viewpoint consists in hybrid systems where hydrogen is combined with short-term energy storage technologies like batteries and supercapacitors. In these hybrid systems the advantages with each storage technology can be fully exploited to maximize efficiency if the system is specifically tailored to the given situation. The disadvantage is that this will obviously increase the complexity and total cost of the energy system.<br/>Therefore control systems and energy management strategies are important factors to achieve optimal results both in terms of efficiency and cost. By considering the reviewed projects and evaluating operation modes and control systems new hybrid energy systems could be tailored to fit each situation and to reduce energy losses.
Energy Transition Outlook 2021: Technology Progress Report
Jun 2021
Publication
This report is part of DNV’s suite of Energy Transition Outlook publications for 2021. It focuses on how key energy transition technologies will develop compete and interact in the coming five years.
Debate and uncertainty about the energy transition tend to focus on what technology can and can’t do. All too often such discussions involve wishful thinking advocacy of a favoured technology or reference to outdated information. Through this report we bring insights derived from our daily work with the world’s leading energy players including producers transporters and end users. Each of the ten chapters that follow are written by our experts in the field – or in the case of maritime technologies on the ocean.
Because the pace of the transition is intensifying describing any given technology is like painting a fast-moving train. We have attempted to strike a balance between technical details and issues of safety efficiency cost and competitiveness. Transition technologies are deeply interlinked and in some cases interdependent; any discussion on green hydrogen for example must account for developments in renewable electricity hydrogen storage and transport systems and end-use technologies such as fuels cells.
Our selection of ten technologies is not exhaustive but each of these technologies is of particular interest for the pace and direction of the energy transition. They range from relatively mature technologies like solar PV to technologies like nuclear fusion which are some distance from commercialization but which have current R&D and prototyping worth watching. Together they cover most but not all key sectors. We describe expected developments for the coming five years which to a large extent will determine how the energy transition unfolds through to mid-century. As such this Technology Progress report is an essential supplement to our main Energy Transition Outlook forecast.
Our aim is to make an objective and realistic assessment of the status of these technologies and evaluate how they contribute to the energy transition ahead. Attention to progress in these technologies will be critical for anyone concerned with energy.
Debate and uncertainty about the energy transition tend to focus on what technology can and can’t do. All too often such discussions involve wishful thinking advocacy of a favoured technology or reference to outdated information. Through this report we bring insights derived from our daily work with the world’s leading energy players including producers transporters and end users. Each of the ten chapters that follow are written by our experts in the field – or in the case of maritime technologies on the ocean.
Because the pace of the transition is intensifying describing any given technology is like painting a fast-moving train. We have attempted to strike a balance between technical details and issues of safety efficiency cost and competitiveness. Transition technologies are deeply interlinked and in some cases interdependent; any discussion on green hydrogen for example must account for developments in renewable electricity hydrogen storage and transport systems and end-use technologies such as fuels cells.
Our selection of ten technologies is not exhaustive but each of these technologies is of particular interest for the pace and direction of the energy transition. They range from relatively mature technologies like solar PV to technologies like nuclear fusion which are some distance from commercialization but which have current R&D and prototyping worth watching. Together they cover most but not all key sectors. We describe expected developments for the coming five years which to a large extent will determine how the energy transition unfolds through to mid-century. As such this Technology Progress report is an essential supplement to our main Energy Transition Outlook forecast.
Our aim is to make an objective and realistic assessment of the status of these technologies and evaluate how they contribute to the energy transition ahead. Attention to progress in these technologies will be critical for anyone concerned with energy.
A CFD Analysis of Liquid Hydrogen Vessel Explosions using the ADREA-HF Code
Sep 2021
Publication
Despite hydrogen is one of the most suitable candidates in replacing fossil fuels its very low densityrepresents a drawback when it is stored. The liquefaction process can increase the hydrogen densityand therefore enhance its storage capacity. The boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) isa typical accident scenario that must be always considered when liquefied gases are stored. Inparticular BLEVE is a physical explosion with low probabilities and high consequences which mayoccur after the catastrophic rupture of a vessel containing a liquid with a temperature above its boilingpoint at atmospheric pressure. In this paper a parametric CFD analysis of the BLEVE phenomenonwas conducted by means of the CFD code ADREA-HF for liquid hydrogen (LH2) vessels. Firstly theCFD model is validated against a well-documented CO2 BLEVE experiment. Next hydrogen BLEVEcases are examined. The physical parameters were chosen based on the BMW tests carried out in the1990s on LH2 tanks designed for automotive purposes. Different filling degrees initial pressures andtemperatures of the tank content are simulated to comprehend how the blast wave is influenced by theinitial conditions. The aim of this study is twofold: provide new insights and observations on theBLEVE dynamics and demonstrate the CFD tool effectiveness for conducting the consequenceanalysis and thus aiding the risk assessment of liquefied gas vessel explosion. Good agreement wasshown between the simulation outcomes and the experimental results.
Transitioning Remote Arctic Settlements to Renewable Energy Systems – A Modelling Study of Longyearbyen, Svalbard
Nov 2019
Publication
As transitioning away from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources comes on the agenda for a range of energy systems energy modelling tools can provide useful insights. If large parts of the energy system turns out to be based on variable renewables an accurate representation of their short-term variability in such models is crucial. In this paper we have developed a stochastic long-term energy model and applied it to an isolated Arctic settlement as a challenging and realistic test case. Our findings suggest that the stochastic modelling approach is critical in particular for studies of remote Arctic energy systems. Furthermore the results from a case study of the Norwegian settlement of Longyearbyen suggest that transitioning to a system based on renewable energy sources is feasible. We recommend that a solution based mainly on renewable power generation but also including energy storage import of hydrogen and adequate back-up capacity is taken into consideration when planning the future of remote Arctic settlements.
Chemical Inhibition of Premixed Hydrogen-air Flames: Experimental Investigation using a 20-litre Vessel
Sep 2021
Publication
Throughout the history of the mining petroleum process and nuclear industries continuous efforts have been made to develop and improve measures to prevent and mitigate accidental explosions. Over the coming decades energy systems are expected to undergo a transition towards sustainable use of conventional hydrocarbons and an increasing share of renewable energy sources in the global energy mix. The variable and intermittent supply of energy from solar and wind points to energy systems based on hydrogen or hydrogen-based fuels as the primary energy carriers. However the safety-related properties of hydrogen imply that it is not straightforward to achieve and document the same level of safety for hydrogen systems compared to similar systems based on established fuels such as petrol diesel and natural gas. Compared to the conventional fuels hydrogen-air mixtures have lower ignition energy higher combustion reactivity and a propensity to undergo deflagration-to-detonation-transition (DDT) under certain conditions. To achieve an acceptable level of safety it is essential to develop effective measures for mitigating the consequences of hydrogen explosions in systems with certain degree of congestion and confinement. Extensive research over the last decade have demonstrated that chemical inhibition or partial suppression can be used for mitigating the consequences of vapour cloud explosions (VCEs) in congested process plants. Total and cooperation partners have demonstrated that solid flame inhibitors injected into flammable hydrocarbon-air clouds represent an effective means of mitigating the consequences of VCEs involving hydrocarbons. For hydrogen-air explosions these same chemicals inhibitors have not proved effective. It is however well-known that hydrocarbons can affect the burning velocity of hydrogen-air mixtures greatly. This paper gives an overview over previous work on chemical inhibitors. In addition experiments in a 20-litre vessel have been performed to investigate the effect of combinations of hydrocarbons and alkali salts on hydrogen/air mixtures.
Current Status of Automotive Fuel Cells for Sustainable Transport
May 2019
Publication
Automotive proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) have finally reached a state of technological readiness where several major automotive companies are commercially leasing and selling fuel cell electric vehicles including Toyota Honda and Hyundai. These now claim vehicle speed and acceleration refueling time driving range and durability that rival conventional internal combustion engines and in most cases outperform battery electric vehicles. The residual challenges and areas of improvement which remain for PEMFCs are performance at high current density durability and cost. These are expected to be resolved over the coming decade while hydrogen infrastructure needs to become widely available. Here we briefly discuss the status of automotive PEMFCs misconceptions about the barriers that platinum usage creates and the remaining hurdles for the technology to become broadly accepted and implemented.
Role of Grain Boundaries in Hydrogen Embrittlement of Alloy 725: Single and Bi-crystal Microcantilever Bending Study
Jan 2022
Publication
In situ electrochemical microcantilever bending tests were conducted in this study to investigate the role of grain boundaries (GBs) in hydrogen embrittlement (HE) of Alloy 725. Specimens were prepared under three different heat treatment conditions and denoted as solution-annealed (SA) aged (AG) and over-aged (OA) samples. For single-crystal beams in an H-containing environment all three heat-treated samples exhibited crack formation and propagation; however crack propagation was more severe in the OA sample. The anodic extraction of H presented similar results as those under the H-free condition indicating the reversibility of the H effect under the tested conditions. Bi-crystal micro-cantilevers bent under H-free and H-charged conditions revealed the significant role of the GB in the HE of the beams. The results indicated that the GB in the SA sample facilitated dislocation dissipation whereas for the OA sample it caused the retardation of crack propagation. For the AG sample testing in an H-containing environment led to the formation of a sharp severe crack along the GB path.
Value of Green Hydrogen When Curtailed to Provide Grid Balancing Services
Aug 2022
Publication
This paper evaluates the potential of grid services in France Italy Norway and Spain to provide an alternative income for electrolysers producing hydrogen from wind power. Grid services are simulated with each country's data for 2017 for energy prices grid services and wind power profiles from relevant wind parks. A novel metric is presented the value of curtailed hydrogen which is independent from several highly uncertain parameters such as electrolyser cost or hydrogen market price. Results indicate that grid services can monetise the unused spare capacity of electrolyser plants improving their economy in the critical deployment phase. For most countries up-regulation yields a value of curtailed hydrogen above 6 V/kg over 3 times higher than the EU's 2030 price target (without incentives). However countries with large hydro power resources such as Norway yield far lower results below 2 V/kg. The value of curtailed hydrogen also decreases with hydrogen production corresponding to the cases of symmetric and down-regulation.
Perspective on the Hydrogen Economy as a Pathway to Reach Net-zero CO2 Emissions in Europe
Jan 2022
Publication
The envisioned role of hydrogen in the energy transition – or the concept of a hydrogen economy – has varied through the years. In the past hydrogen was mainly considered a clean fuel for cars and/or electricity production; but the current renewed interest stems from the versatility of hydrogen in aiding the transition to CO2 neutrality where the capability to tackle emissions from distributed applications and complex industrial processes is of paramount importance. However the hydrogen economy will not materialise without strong political support and robust infrastructure design. Hydrogen deployment needs to address multiple barriers at once including technology development for hydrogen production and conversion infrastructure co-creation policy market design and business model development. In light of these challenges we have brought together a group of hydrogen researchers who study the multiple interconnected disciplines to offer a perspective on what is needed to deploy the hydrogen economy as part of the drive towards net-zero-CO2 societies. We do this by analysing (i) hydrogen end-use technologies and applications (ii) hydrogen production methods (iii) hydrogen transport and storage networks (iv) legal and regulatory aspects and (v) business models. For each of these we provide key take home messages ranging from the current status to the outlook and needs for further research. Overall we provide the reader with a thorough understanding of the elements in the hydrogen economy state of play and gaps to be filled.
Liquid Hydrogen as Prospective Energy Carrier: A Brief Review and Discussion of Underlying Assumptions Applied in Value Chain Analysis
Nov 2021
Publication
In the literature different energy carriers are proposed in future long-distance hydrogen value chains. Hydrogen can be stored and transported in different forms e.g. as compressed dense-phase hydrogen liquefied hydrogen and in chemically bound forms as different chemical hydrides. Recently different high-level value chain studies have made extrapolative investigations and compared such options with respect to energy efficiency and cost. Three recent journal papers overlap as the liquid hydrogen option has been considered in all three studies. The studies are not fully aligned in terms of underlying assumptions and battery limits. A comparison reveals partly vast differences in results for chain energy efficiency for long-distance liquid hydrogen transport which are attributable to distinct differences in the set of assumptions. Our comparison pinpoints the boiloff ratio i.e. evaporation losses due to heat ingress in liquid hydrogen storage tanks as the main cause of the differences and this assumption is further discussed. A review of spherical tank size and attributed boiloff ratios is presented for existing tanks of different vintage as well as for recently proposed designs. Furthermore the prospect for further extension of tanks size and reduction of boiloff ratio is discussed with a complementary discussion about the use of economic assumptions in extrapolative and predictive studies. Finally we discuss the impact of battery limits in hydrogen value chain studies and pinpoint knowledge needs and the need for a detailed bottom-up approach as a prerequisite for improving the understanding for pros and cons of the different hydrogen energy carriers.
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