Publications

The objective of the analysis is to provide a robust assessment of the economic impact of HyNet NW over the period to 2050 across both the North West of England and the UK as a whole. Impact is assessed through modelling of direct indirect and induced effect frameworks:

• Direct effects – activities that directly accrue due to the construction and operation of the facilities;
• Indirect effects – the purchase of goods and services to facilitate construction/operation; and
• Induced effects – spending of wages and salaries generated directly and indirectly through construction and operation.

The approach taken is to define the capital and operating expenditure (CAPEX and OPEX) profiles of the Project investment as the basis of analysis distinguishing where feasible between design construction and equipment costs and establishing the likely sourcing of these activities from within the North West UK and overseas.

Consideration is also given to the potential impacts of inward investment attracted to the North West/UK in the wake of the Project.

Certification of hydrogen sensors to meet standards often prescribes using large-volume test chambers. However feedback from stakeholders such as sensor manufacturers and end-users indicates that chamber test methods are often viewed as too slow and expensive for routine assessment. Flow-through test methods are potentially an efficient and cost-effective alternative for sensor performance assessment. A large number of sensors can be simultaneously tested in series or in parallel with an appropriate flow-through test fixture. The recent development of sensors with response times of less than 1s mandates improvements in equipment and methodology to properly capture the performance of this new generation of fast sensors; flow methods are a viable approach for accurate response and recovery time determinations but there are potential drawbacks. According to ISO 26142 flow-through test methods may not properly simulate ambient applications. In chamber test methods gas transport to the sensor is dominated by diffusion which is viewed by some users as mimicking deployment in rooms and other confined spaces. Conversely in flow-through methods forced flow transports the gas to the sensing element. The advective flow dynamics may induce changes in the sensor behaviour relative to the quasi-quiescent condition that may prevail in chamber test methods. The aim of the current activity in the JRC and NREL sensor laboratories is to develop a validated flow-through apparatus and methods for hydrogen sensor performance testing. In addition to minimizing the impact on sensor behaviour induced by differences in flow dynamics challenges associated with flow-through methods include the ability to control environmental parameters (humidity pressure and temperature) during the test and changes in the test gas composition induced by chemical reactions with upstream sensors. Guidelines on flow-through test apparatus design and protocols for the evaluation of hydrogen sensor performance have been developed. Various commercial sensor platforms (e.g. thermal conductivity catalytic and metal semiconductor) were used to demonstrate the advantages and issues with the flow-through methodology.

Seizing the clean growth opportunity. The move to cleaner economic growth is one of the greatest industrial opportunities of our time. This Strategy will ensure Britain is ready to seize that opportunity. Our modern Industrial Strategy is about increasing the earning power of people in every part of the country. We need to do that while not just protecting but improving the environment on which our economic success depends. In short we need higher growth with lower carbon emissions. This approach is at the heart of our Strategy for clean growth. The opportunity for people and business across the country is huge. The low carbon economy could grow 11 per cent per year between 2015 and 2030 four times faster than the projected growth of the economy as a whole. This is spread across a large number of sectors: from low cost low carbon power generators to more efficient farms; from innovators creating better batteries to the factories putting them in less polluting cars; from builders improving our homes so they are cheaper to run to helping businesses become more productive. This growth will not just be seen in the UK. Following the success of the Paris Agreement where Britain played such an important role in securing the landmark deal the transition to a global low carbon economy is gathering momentum. We want the UK to capture every economic opportunity it can from this global shift in technologies and services.<br/>Our approach to clean growth is an important element of our modern Industrial Strategy: building on the UK’s strengths; improving productivity across the country; and ensuring we are the best place for innovators and new businesses to start up and grow. A good example of this is offshore wind where costs have halved in just a few years. A combination of sustained commitment – across different Governments – and targeted public sector innovation support harnessing the expertise of UK engineers working in offshore conditions and private sector ingenuity has created the conditions for a new industry to flourish while cutting emissions. We need to replicate this success in sectors across our economy. This Strategy delivers on the challenge that Britain embraced when Parliament passed the Climate Change Act. If we get it right we will not just deliver reduced emissions but also cleaner air lower energy bills for households and businesses an enhanced natural environment good jobs and industrial opportunity. It is an opportunity we will seize.

The formation of hydrogen jets from pressurized sources and ignition has been studied by many projects also when hitting hot devices. In the paper presented at the conference 2 years ago the ignition was caused by glow plug a “point like source” at various temperatures distances of igniter and source and source pressures. In continuation of that work ignition now occurred by 1 or 3 platelets of size 45 x 18 mm at a temperatures of 1223 K. When hitting these hot platelets the resulting flame explosions and flame jets show interesting characteristics in contrast to the point like ignition where the explosions drifts downstream with the jet. Parameters of the experiments vary in initial pressure of the tubular source (10 20 and 40 MPa) distance between the nozzle and the hot surface (3 5 and 7 m) and temperature of the hot surface (1223 K). The initial explosions stabilize already at the stagnation point or the wake of the hot platelets. Furthermore flames propagate upstream and downstream depending on the pressure of the hydrogen reservoir and the distance. The achieved flame velocities vary strongly from 30 to 240 m/s. With all investigated hydrogen pressures strong reactions v > 40 m/s occur at platelet distances of 3 and 5 m. The higher values are mainly achieved with jets with 40 MPa pressure at 3 m distance. In these cases the initial explosion contours show irregular shapes. Various effects are found like explosion separation further independently initiated explosions and two parallel flame jets upstream as well as downstream.

The Swedish and Finnish steel industry has a world-leading position in terms of efficient blast furnace operations with low CO2 emissions. This is a result of a successful development work carried out in the 1980s at LKAB (Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara Aktiebolag mining company) and SSAB (steel company) followed by the closing of sinter plants and transition to 100% pellet operation at all of SSAB’s five blast furnaces. However to further reduce CO2 emission in iron production a new breakthrough technology is necessary. In 2016 SSAB teamed up with LKAB and Vattenfall AB (energy company) and launched a project aimed at investigating the feasibility of a hydrogen-based sponge iron production process with fossil-free electricity as the primary energy source: HYBRIT (Hydrogen Breakthrough Ironmaking Technology). A prefeasibility study was carried out in 2017 which concluded that the proposed process route is technically feasible and economically attractive for conditions in northern Sweden/Finland. A decision was made in February 2018 to build a pilot plant and construction started in June 2018 with completion of the plant planned in summer 2020 followed by experimental campaigns the following years. Parallel with the pilot plant activities a four-year research program was launched from the autumn of 2016 involving several research institutes and universities in Sweden to build knowledge and competence in several subject areas.

COVID-19 has led to a global crisis threatening the lives and livelihoods of the most vulnerable by increasing poverty exacerbating inequalities and damaging long-term economic growth prospects. The report Are We Building Back Better? Evidence from 2020 and Pathways for Inclusive Green Recovery Spending provides an analysis of over 3500 fiscal policies announced by leading economies in 2020 and calls for governments to invest more sustainably and tackle inequalities as they stimulate growth in the wake of the devastation wrought by the pandemic.

The development of new infrastructure is often a consideration in the introduction of new innovations. Currently there is some confusion around how to develop a hydrogen infrastructure to support the introduction of FCVs. Lessons can be learned from similar technology introduction in the past and therefore this paper investigates how mobile phone infrastructure was developed allowing the mass-market penetration of mobile phones. Based on this successful infrastructural development suggestions can be made on the development of a hydrogen infrastructure. It is suggested that a hydrogen infrastructure needs to be pre-developed 3–5 years before the market introduction of FCVs can successfully occur. A lack of infrastructural pre-development will cause to the market introduction of FCVs to fail.

The efficiency of gas sensor application for facilitating the safe use of hydrogen depends considerably on the sensor response to a change in hydrogen concentration. Therefore the response time has been measured for five different-type commercially available hydrogen sensors. Experiments showed that all these sensors surpass the ISO 26142 standard; for the response times t90 values of 2 s to 16 s were estimated. Results can be fitted with an exponential or sigmoidal function. It can be demonstrated that the results on transient behaviour depend on both the operating parameters of sensors and investigation methods as well as on the experimental conditions: gas change rate and concentration jump.

316L stainless steel is a promising material candidate for a hydrogen containment system. However when in contact with hydrogen the material could be degraded by hydrogen embrittlement (HE). Moreover the mechanism and the effect of HE on 316L stainless steel have not been clearly studied. This study investigated the effect of hydrogen exposure on the impact toughness of 316L stainless steel to understand the relation between hydrogen charging time and fracture toughness at ambient and cryogenic temperatures. In this study 316L stainless steel specimens were exposed to hydrogen in different durations. Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact tests were conducted at ambient and low temperatures to study the effect of HE on the impact properties and fracture toughness of 316L stainless steel under the tested temperatures. Hydrogen analysis and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were conducted to find the effect of charging time on the hydrogen concentration and surface morphology respectively. The result indicated that exposure to hydrogen decreased the absorbed energy and ductility of 316L stainless steel at all tested temperatures but not much difference was found among the pre-charging times. Another academic insight is that low temperatures diminished the absorbed energy by lowering the ductility of 316L stainless steel

Setting up and operating a hydrogen refueling station is a critical part of current drive for fuel cell vehicles. In setting up a hydrogen refueling station (HRS) the investor concerns of the capacity of HRS the quality of hydrogen the capital requirement of the station and the modes of hydrogen supply; interestingly the supply modes of hydrogen further influences the safety of the station the cost of hydrogen the energy consumption of supply and the area of hydrogen supply section in a station. Hydrogen can be supplied to a HRS by the procurement of the merchant hydrogen from a central source with the central hydrogen supply mode (CHSM) or by an onsite production of hydrogen in the distributed hydrogen supply mode (DHSM). In this presentation the above factors are evaluated with respect to these two supply modes of hydrogen. It is concluded that the lower hydrogen cost and the smaller site area as well as the safer aspect of the public concern of safety can be realized with the choice of the distributed hydrogen supply mode by an onsite hydrogen production from methanol.

This paper examines the helium dispersion behaviour in a 16.6 m3 enclosure with a small opening in the floor and distributed leaks along the edges. Helium a simulant for hydrogen was injected near the center of the floor with an injection rate ranging from 2 to 50 standard liters per minute (Richardson number of 0.3–134) through an upward-facing nozzle. In a short-term transient the helium distribution predicted with the models of Baines & Turner (1969) and Worster & Huppert (1983) matched the measured distributions reasonably well. In a long-term transient the vertical helium profile always reached a steady state which consisted of a homogenous layer at the top overlaying a stratified layer at the bottom. The helium transients in the uniform layer predicted with the models of Lowesmith (2009) and Prasad & Yang (2010) assuming a vent was located in the ceiling were in good agreement with the measured transients.

The competition between chemical energy release rate and volumetric expansion related to shock wave’s dynamics is of primary importance for a number of situations relevant to explosion safety. While studies have been performed on this topic over the years they have been limited to mixtures with monotonous energy release profile. In the present study the ignition of H2-NO2/N2O4 mixtures which exhibit a single-step or a two-step energy release rate profile depending on the equivalence ratio has been investigated under volumetric expansion conditions. The rate of expansion has been calculated using the Taylor-Sedov solution and accounted for using 0-D numerical simulations with time-dependent specific volume. The results were analyzed in terms of a Damkohler number defined as the ratio of the expansion to ignition times. For mixtures with non-monotonous energy release rate profiles two critical Damkohler numbers can be identified one for each of the steps of energy release. It was also shown that the fluid element which is the most likely to ignite corresponds to the one behind a shock propagating at the Chapman-Jouguet velocity. The thermo-chemical dynamics have been analyzed about the critical conditions using energy release rate per reaction rate of production and sensitivity analyses.

In this study an explosion channel is used to investigate flame dynamics in homogeneous hydrogencarbon monoxide-air (H2-CO-air) mixtures. The test rig is a small scale 6 m channel at a rectangular cross section of 300x60 mm. Obstacles of a blockage ratio of BR=60% and a spacing of s=300mm are placed in first part of the channel. A 2.05 m long unobstructed part in the rear of the channel allows for investigation of freely propagating flames and detonations. The fuel composition is varied from 100/0 to 50/50 Vol.-% H2/CO mixtures. The overall fuel content ranges from 15 to 40 Vol.-% in air aiming to obtain fast flames and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT). Flame speed and dynamic pressure data are evaluated. Results extend data obtained by [1] and can be used for validation of numerical frameworks. Limits for fast flames and DDT in homogeneous H2-CO-air mixtures at the given geometry are presented.

The Prime Minister’s Ten Point Plan has set out the measures that will help ensure the UK is at the forefront of this revolution just as we led the first over two centuries ago. As nations move out of the shadow of coronavirus and confront the challenge of climate change with renewed vigour markets for new green products and services will spring up round the world. Taking action now will help ensure not just that we end our contribution to climate change by achieving our target of net zero emissions. It will help position UK companies and our world class research base to seize the business opportunities which flow from it creating jobs and wealth for our country.

Following on from the Ten Point Plan and the National Infrastructure Strategy the Energy White Paper provides further clarity on the Prime Minister’s measures and puts in place a strategy for the wider energy system that:

• Transforms energy building a cleaner greener future for our country our people and our planet 
• Supports a green recovery growing our economy supporting thousands of green jobs across the country in new green industries and leveraging new green export opportunities
• Creates a fair deal for consumers protecting the fuel poor providing opportunities to save money on bills giving us warmer more comfortable homes and balancing investment against bill impacts.

This study presents a computational fluid dynamic (CFD) study of Dimethyl Ether steam reforming (DME-SR) in a large scale Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) reactor. The CFD model is based on Eulerian–Eulerian dispersed flow and solved using commercial software (ANSYS FLUENT). The DME-SR reactions scheme and kinetics in the presence of a bifunctional catalyst of CuO/ZnO/Al₂O₃+ZSM-5 were incorporated in the model using in-house developed user-defined function. The model was validated by comparing the predictions with experimental data from the literature. The results revealed for the first time detailed CFB reactor hydrodynamics gas residence time temperature distribution and product gas composition at a selected operating condition of 300 °C and steam to DME mass ratio of 3 (molar ratio of 7.62). The spatial variation in the gas species concentrations suggests the existence of three distinct reaction zones but limited temperature variations. The DME conversion and hydrogen yield were found to be 87% and 59% respectively resulting in a product gas consisting of 72 mol% hydrogen. In part II of this study the model presented here will be used to optimize the reactor design and study the effect of operating conditions on the reactor performance and products.

With downward trends in Australian equipment manufacturing there are increased numbers of overseas designed manufactured and certified hydrogen systems being introduced into Australia. In parallel there are also opportunities for hydrogen and its carriers to be exported to overseas. Certainty of reputable codes and standards is important to meet regulatory requirements and community safety expectations locally and overseas.

This paper is a progress report of Hydrogen Mobility Australia’s (HMA) Technical Committee on mapping the regulatory codes and standards (RCS) gaps in Australia and establishing a pathway together with Standards Australia and Commonwealth and State Governments. This paper will discuss the benefits of the pathway covering the areas of:

• Safety – Enable Australia to implement consensual rules to minimise avoidable risks to persons and goods to an acceptable level
• Environment – Ensure protection of the environment from unacceptable damage due to the operation and effects of products processes and services linked to hydrogen
• Elimination of barriers to trade – Provide consistency between international jurisdictions enabling streamlined entry of hydrogen related equipment from overseas
• Upskilling of Australian industry participants – Gain useful learnings from countries more advanced in their progress in implementing ISO standards and hydrogen sector development

This paper is jointly prepared by representatives of HMA Technical Committee and Department of Energy and Mining South Australian Government. The paper also highlights the initiatives of Commonwealth and State Governments to advance the hydrogen economy.

This discussion session interrogated the current understanding of hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms in steels. This article is a transcription of the recorded discussion of ‘Hydrogen in steels’ at the Royal Society Scientific Discussion Meeting ‘The challenges of hydrogen and metals’ 16–18 January 2017.

The text is approved by the contributors. E.L.S. transcribed the session. M.P. assisted in the preparation of the manuscript

Link to document download on Royal Society Website 

A larger adoption of hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) is typically included in the strategies to decarbonize the transportation sector. This inclusion is supported by life-cycle assessments (LCAs) which show the potential greenhouse gas (GHG) emission benefit of replacing internal combustion engine vehicles with their fuel cell counterpart. However the literature review performed in this study shows that the effects of durability and performance losses of fuel cells on the life-cycle environmental impact of the vehicle have rarely been assessed. Most of the LCAs assume a constant fuel consumption (ranging from 0.58 to 1.15 kgH2/100 km) for the vehicles throughout their service life which ranges in the assessments from 120000 to 225000 km. In this study the effect of performance losses on the life-cycle GHG emissions of the vehicles was assessed based on laboratory experiments. Losses have the effect of increasing the life-cycle GHG emissions of the vehicle up to 13%. Moreover this study attempted for the first time to investigate via laboratory analyses the GHG implications of replacing the hydrophobic polymer for the gas diffusion medium (GDM) of fuel cells to increase their durability. LCA showed that when the service life of the vehicle was fixed at 150000 km the GHG emission savings of using an FC with lower performance losses (i.e. FC coated with fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) instead of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)) are negligible compared to the overall life-cycle impact of the vehicle. Both the GDM coating and the amount of hydrogen saved account for less than 2% of the GHG emissions arising during vehicle operation. On the other hand when the service life of the vehicle depends on the operability of the fuel cell the global warming potential per driven km of the FEP-based FCEV reduces by 7 to 32%. The range of results depends on several variables such as the GHG emissions from hydrogen production and the initial fuel consumption of the vehicle. Higher GHG savings are expected from an FC vehicle with high consumption of hydrogen produced with fossil fuels. Based on the results we recommend the inclusion of fuel-cell durability in future LCAs of FCEVs. We also advocate for more research on the real-life performance of fuel cells employing alternative materials.

Hydrogen transport and trapping equations are implemented in a FE software using User Subroutines and the obtained tool is applied to get the diffusion fields in a metallic sheet submitted to a U-Bend test. Based on a submodelling process mechanical and diffusion fields have been computed at the polycrystal scale from which statistical evaluation of the risk of failure of the sample has been estimated.

Deployment and investments in hydrogen have accelerated rapidly in response to government commitments to deep decarbonisation establishing hydrogen as a key component in the energy transition.

To help guide regulators decision-makers and investors the Hydrogen Council collaborated with McKinsey & Company to release the report ‘Hydrogen Insights 2021: A Perspective on Hydrogen Investment Deployment and Cost Competitiveness’. The report offers a comprehensive perspective on market deployment around the world investment momentum as well as implications on cost competitiveness of hydrogen solutions.

The document can be downloaded from their website

New vehicle technologies and fuels will drive the future of road transport in Australia. Increased availability of battery electric vehicles hydrogen fuel cell vehicles biofuels and associated recharging and refuelling infrastructure will:

• give consumers more choice
• provide productivity emissions reduction fuel security and air quality benefits

Our Future Fuels Strategy: Discussion Paper sets out the direction and practical actions to enable the private sector to commercially deploy low emissions road transport technologies at scale."

Winlaton site was chosen as the site for the HyDeploy 2 North East trial as it was seen as the site that offered a high degree of variability with regards materials on the network size of network and statistical representation of housing. The Winlaton trial network is an estate of the wider Winlaton gas network situated in Blaydon near Gateshead. The Winlaton trial network has been isolated from the wider Winlaton gas network where it was previously supplied from and will be supplied with the blended gas from NGN’s Low Thornley gas depot with the installation of a brand-new pressure regulating district governor.<br/>The data contained within this report outlines the expected seasonal gas demand on the Winlaton trial network and the associated leakage and repair history for the network. No unusual repairs or leakage behaviour has been observed on this network. A DSEAR assessment has been conducted on the governor station ensuring ATEX compliance. The network isolation and reinforcement requirements are also given in this report highlighting the necessary actions to isolate the trial network from the wider Winlaton gas network. The NGN Safety Case outlines the risks associated with the operation of a gas grid and the ALARP mitigations developed to minimise them and what response is necessary in case such risks are realised. The existing safety case will be amended to account for the infrastructural operational and commercial changes associated with the HyDeploy 2 project. The report also contains a detailed register of all the assets on the Winlaton trial network this data set was used to inform the scientific research programme and specifically to allow an assessment to be carried out with regards to the operability of the existing and newly installed assets on the Winlaton trial network with respect to the blended gas.<br/>Click on supplement tab to view the other documents from this report

Hydrothermal gasification (HTG) experiments were carried out to extract hydrogen from biomass. Although extensive research has been conducted on hydrogen production with HTG limited research exists on the use of biochar as a raw material. In this study woodland residues (wood chip) and biochar from wood-chip pyrolysis were used in HTG treatment to generate hydrogen. This research investigated the effect of temperature (300–425 °C) and biomass/water (0.5–10) ratio on gas composition. A higher temperature promoted hydrogen production because the water–gas shift reaction and steam-reforming reaction were promoted with an increase in temperature. The methane concentration was related positively to temperature because of the methanation and hydrogenation reactions. A lower biomass/water ratio promoted hydrogen production but suppressed carbon-monoxide production. Most reactions that produce hydrogen consume water but water also affects the water–gas shift reaction balance which decreases the carbon-monoxide concentration. By focusing on the practical application of HTG we attempted biochar treatment by pyrolysis (temperature of heating part: 700 °C) and syngas was obtained from hydrothermal treatment above 425 °C.

The objective of this work is to investigate the effect of hydrogen-induced fracture of TiNi-based alloy. In this report we performed the first studies comparing inelastic properties and fracture of the specimens of the binary alloy of TiNi wire under the action of hydrogen with coarse-grained (CG) and ultrafine-grained (UFG) microstructure. It is shown that hydrogen embrittlement (HE) occurs irrespective of the grain size in the studied specimens at approximately equal strain values. However compared to the specimens with CG structure those with UFG structure accumulate two to three times more hydrogen for the same hydrogenation time. It is found that hydrogen has a much smaller effect on the inelastic properties of specimens with UFG structure as compared to those with CG structure.

Biochar (BCH) is a carbon‐based bio‐material produced from thermochemical conversion of biomass. Several activation or functionalization methods are usually used to improve physicochemical and functional properties of BCHs. In the context of green and sustainable future development activated and functionalized biochars with abundant surface functional groups and large surface area can act as effective catalysts or catalyst supports for chemical transformation of a range of bioproducts in biorefineries. Above the well‐known BCH applications their use as adsorbents to remove pollutants are the mostly discussed although their potential as catalysts or catalyst supports for advanced (electro)catalytic processes has not been comprehensively explored. In this review the production/activation/functionalization of metal‐supported biochar (M‐BCH) are scrutinized giving special emphasis to the metal‐functionalized biochar‐based (electro)catalysts as promising catalysts for bioenergy and bioproducts production. Their performance in the fields of biorefinery processes and energy storage and conversion as electrode materials for oxygen and hydrogen evolutions oxygen reduction and supercapacitors are also reviewed and discussed.