Applications & Pathways
Methanol as a Carrier of Hydrogen and Carbon in Fossil-free Production of Direct Reduced Iron
Jul 2020
Publication
Steelmaking is responsible for around 7% of the global emissions of carbon dioxide and new steelmaking processes are necessary to reach international climate targets. As a response to this steelmaking processes based on the direct reduction of iron ore by hydrogen produced via water electrolysis powered by renewable electricity have been suggested. Here we present a novel variant of hydrogen-based steelmaking incorporating methanol as a hydrogen and carbon carrier together with high-temperature co-electrolysis of water and carbon dioxide and biomass oxy-fuel combustion. The energy and mass balances of the process are analyzed. It is found that this methanol-based direct reduction process may potentially offer a number of process-related advantages over a process based on pure hydrogen featuring several process integration options. Notably the electricity and total energy use of the steelmaking process could be reduced by up to 25% and 8% compared to a reference pure hydrogen process respectively. The amount of high-temperature (> 200 °C) heat that must be supplied to the process could also be reduced by up to approximately 34% although the demand for medium-temperature heat is substantially increased. Furthermore the suggested process could allow for the production of high-quality direct reduced iron with appropriate carburization to alleviate downstream processing in an electric arc furnace which is not the case for a process based on pure hydrogen.
Market Segmentation of Domestic and Commercial Natural Gas Appliances
Jan 2021
Publication
The main goal of the project is to enable the wide adoption of H2NG (hydrogen in natural gas) blends by closing knowledge gaps regarding technical impacts on residential and commercial gas appliances. The project consortium will identify and recommend appropriate codes and standards that should be adapted to answer the needs and develop a strategy for addressing the challenges for new and existing appliances.<br/>This deliverable on market segmentation is part of work package 2 and provides a quantitative segmentation of the gas appliance market in terms of appliance population numbers. It therefore prepares the project partners to perform the subsequent selection of the most representative product types to be tested in the laboratories of the THyGA partners.<br/>The classification is developed to categorise appliances installed in the field based on available statistics calculation methods and estimations. As a result appliance populations are provided for each technology segment that draw a representative picture of the installed end-use appliances within the European Union in 2020.
Hydrogen Scooter Testing and Verification Program
Nov 2012
Publication
Taiwan stands out globally in the manufacture of scooters. If fuel cell technology could be applied to the scooter Taiwan could gain an advantage in the trend for commercial applications for fct. In 2011 The Bureau of Standards Metrology and Inspection proposed this project “the Demonstration of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Scooters.” Thirty rental fuel cell scooters are to run a long distance. Evaluation during everyday use of the cells performance will be made and reported by the riders. All the evaluations will be put into consideration of future adjustments. The project is to map out a practice route in Taipei and set up a control center to follow progress. The data gathered from the practice project will help examine the performance of fuel cell scooters contributing to the creation of legal drafts and future standards. The Taiwan fuel cell industry chain is complete and the industry possesses the ability to produce key components. Thus it is a potential market in Taiwan. A review of fuel cell development conditions in Taiwan shows that the fuel cell scooters is a niche industry owing to the strength of this technology.
Amorphous Iron-nickel Phosphide Nanocone Arrays as Efficient Bifunctional Electrodes for Overall Water Splitting
May 2020
Publication
The synthesis of low-cost and highly active electrodes for both oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is very important for water splitting. In this work the novel amorphous iron-nickel phosphide (FeP-Ni) nanocone arrays as efficient bifunctional electrodes for overall water splitting have been in-situ assembled on conductive three-dimensional (3D) Ni foam via a facile and mild liquid deposition process. It is found that the FeP-Ni electrode demonstrates highly efficient electrocatalytic performance toward overall water splitting. In 1 M KOH electrolyte the optimal FeP-Ni electrode drives a current density of 10 mA/cm2 at an overpotential of 218 mV for the OER and 120 mV for the HER and can attain such current density for 25 h without performance regression. Moreover a two-electrode electrolyzer comprising the FeP-Ni electrodes can afford 10 mA/cm2 electrolysis current at a low cell voltage of 1.62 V and maintain long-term stability as well as superior to that of the coupled RuO2/NF‖Pt/C/NF cell. Detailed characterizations confirm that the excellent electrocatalytic performances for water splitting are attributed to the unique 3D morphology of nanocone arrays which could expose more surface active sites facilitate electrolyte diffusion benefit charge transfer and also favourable bubble detachment behaviour. Our work presents a facile and cost-effective pathway to design and develop active self-supported electrodes with novel 3D morphology for water electrolysis.
Optimized EMS and a Comparative Study of Hybrid Hydrogen Fuel Cell/Battery Vehicles
Jan 2022
Publication
This paper presents a new Fuel Cell Fuel Consumption Minimization Strategy (FCFCMS) for Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) powered by a fuel cell and an energy storage system in order to minimize as much as possible the consumption of hydrogen while maintaining the State Of Charge (SOC) of the battery. Compared to existing Energy Management Strategies (EMSs) (such as the well-known State Machine Strategy (SMC) Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) Frequency Decoupling and FLC (FDFLC) and the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS)) the proposed strategy increases the overall vehicle energy efficiency and therefore minimizes the total hydrogen consumption while respecting the constraints of each energy and power element. A model of a hybrid vehicle has been built using the TruckMaker/MATLAB software. Using the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) which includes several stops and accelerations the performance of the proposed strategy has been compared with these different approaches (SMC FLC FDFLC and ECMS) through several simulations.
The Renewable Energy Transition in Africa: Powering Access, Resilience and Prosperity
Mar 2021
Publication
A renewables-based energy transition promises to deliver vast socio-economic benefits to countries across Africa improving energy access creating jobs and boosting energy security. To realise these benefits African countries have an opportunity to leapfrog fossil fuel technologies to a more sustainable climate-friendly power strategy aligned with the Paris Agreement and low-carbon growth.<br/><br/>The Renewable Energy Transition in Africa jointly prepared by Germany's KfW Development Bank Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) explores how African countries can achieve universal energy access within the 2030 Agenda timeframe and identifies four areas of action:<br/><br/>Promote access to energy;<br/>De-risk and promoting private sector investments;<br/>Strengthen and modernise the grid;<br/>Support systemic innovation.<br/>The study also explores the transformational potential of the electricity sector in five Africa countries: Ghana Ivory Coast Morocco Rwanda and South Africa. Specifically developed by IRENA country case studies show the real-life applicability of power sector transformation and demonstrates how countries can:<br/><br/>Take advantage of the abundancy and competitiveness of renewables;<br/>Align ambitious renewable targets in energy and climate plans;<br/>Continue supporting the development of regional markets;<br/>Leverage renewables and distributed energy resources to achieve universal energy access;<br/>Develop tailored power sector transformation plans based on a systemic innovation approach;<br/>Build on policy frameworks for just and inclusive transitions.
Using the Jet Stream for Sustainable Airship and Balloon Transportation of Cargo and Hydrogen
Jul 2019
Publication
The maritime shipping sector is a major contributor to CO2 emissions and this figure is expected to rise in coming decades. With the intent of reducing emissions from this sector this research proposes the utilization of the jet stream to transport a combination of cargo and hydrogen using airships or balloons at altitudes of 10–20 km. The jet streams flow in the mid-latitudes predominantly in a west–east direction reaching an average wind speed of 165 km/h. Using this combination of high wind speeds and reliable direction hydrogen-filled airships or balloons could carry hydrogen with a lower fuel requirement and shorter travel time compared to conventional shipping. Jet streams at different altitudes in the atmosphere were used to identify the most appropriate circular routes for global airship travel. Round-the-world trips would take 16 days in the Northern Hemisphere and 14 in the Southern Hemisphere. Hydrogen transport via the jet stream due to its lower energy consumption and shorter cargo delivery time access to cities far from the coast could be a competitive alternative to maritime shipping and liquefied hydrogen tankers in the development of a sustainable future hydrogen economy.
Techno-economic calculations of small-scale hydrogen supply systems for zero emission transport in Norway
Jun 2019
Publication
In Norway where nearly 100% of the power is hydroelectric it is natural to consider water electrolysis as the main production method of hydrogen for zero-emission transport. In a start-up market with low demand for hydrogen one may find that small-scale WE-based hydrogen production is more cost-efficient than large-scale production because of the potential to reach a high number of operating hours at rated capacity and high overall system utilization rate. Two case studies addressing the levelized costs of hydrogen in local supply systems have been evaluated in the present work: (1) Hydrogen production at a small-scale hydroelectric power plant (with and without on-site refuelling) and (2) Small hydrogen refuelling station for trucks (with and without on-site hydrogen production). The techno-economic calculations of the two case studies show that the levelized hydrogen refuelling cost at the small-scale hydroelectric power plant (with a local station) will be 141 NOK/kg while a fleet of 5 fuel cell trucks will be able to refuel hydrogen at a cost of 58 NOK/kg at a station with on-site production or 71 NOK/kg at a station based on delivered hydrogen. The study shows that there is a relatively good business case for local water electrolysis and supply of hydrogen to captive fleets of trucks in Norway particularly if the size of the fleet is sufficiently large to justify the installation of a relatively large water electrolyzer system (economies of scale). The ideal concept would be a large fleet of heavy-duty vehicles (with a high total hydrogen demand) and a refuelling station with nearly 100% utilization of the installed hydrogen production capacity.
Value Added of the Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Sector in Europe
Mar 2019
Publication
Fuel cells and hydrogen (FCH) could bring significant environmental benefits across the energy system if deployed widely: low carbon and highly efficient energy conversions with zero air quality emissions. The socio-economic benefits to Europe could also be substantial through employment in development manufacturing installation and service sectors and through technology export. Major corporations are stressing the economic and environmental value of FCH technologies and the importance of including them in both transport and stationary energy systems globally while national governments and independent agencies are supporting their role in the energy systems transition.
Recognising the potential economic and industrial benefits from a strong FCH supply chain in Europe and the opportunities for initiatives to support new energy supply chains the FCH 2 JU commissioned a study to evaluate for the first time the value added that the fuel cell and hydrogen sector can bring to Europe by 2030.
The outputs of the study are divided into three reports:
The Value Chain study complements the Hydrogen Roadmap for Europe recently published by the FCH 2 JU. This lays out a pathway for the large-scale deployment of hydrogen and fuel cells to 2050 in order to achieve a 2-degree climate scenario. This study also quantified socio-economic and environmental benefits but with important differences in scope between the two studies. The Hydrogen Roadmap for Europe looked at the wider picture quantifying the scale of FCH roll-out needed to meet the 2-degree scenario objectives. It assessed the socio-economic impacts of a sector of that scale looking top-down at the entire FCH value chain. The Value Chain study presented here is a narrower and more detailed bottom-up assessment of the value-added in manufacturing activities and the immediate ecosystem of suppliers that this is likely to create.
Recognising the potential economic and industrial benefits from a strong FCH supply chain in Europe and the opportunities for initiatives to support new energy supply chains the FCH 2 JU commissioned a study to evaluate for the first time the value added that the fuel cell and hydrogen sector can bring to Europe by 2030.
The outputs of the study are divided into three reports:
- A ‘Summary’ report that provides a synthetic overview of the study conclusions;
- a ‘Findings’ report that presents the approach and findings of the study;
- and an ‘Evidence’ report that provides the detailed background information and analysis that supports the findings and recommendations.
The Value Chain study complements the Hydrogen Roadmap for Europe recently published by the FCH 2 JU. This lays out a pathway for the large-scale deployment of hydrogen and fuel cells to 2050 in order to achieve a 2-degree climate scenario. This study also quantified socio-economic and environmental benefits but with important differences in scope between the two studies. The Hydrogen Roadmap for Europe looked at the wider picture quantifying the scale of FCH roll-out needed to meet the 2-degree scenario objectives. It assessed the socio-economic impacts of a sector of that scale looking top-down at the entire FCH value chain. The Value Chain study presented here is a narrower and more detailed bottom-up assessment of the value-added in manufacturing activities and the immediate ecosystem of suppliers that this is likely to create.
The Influence of Hydrogen Desorption on Micromechanical Properties and Tribological Behavior of Iron and Carbon Steels
Dec 2018
Publication
The influence of the previous electrolytic hydrogenation on the micromechanical properties and tribological behavior of the surface layers of iron and carbon steels has been studied. The concentrations of diffusion-moving and residual hydrogen in steels are determined depending on the carbon content. It is shown that the amount of sorbed hydrogen is determined by the density of dislocations and the relative volume of cementite. After desorption of diffusion-moving hydrogen the microhardness increases and materials plasticity decreases. The change of these characteristics decreases with the increase of carbon content in the steels. Internal stresses increase and redistribute under hydrogen desorption. Fragmentation of ferrite and perlite occurs as a result of electrolytic hydrogenation. Ferrite is characterized by the structure fragmentation and change of the crystallographic orientation of planes. The perlite structure shows the crushing of cementite plates and their destruction. The influence of hydrogen desorption on the microhardness of structural components of ferrite-perlite steels is shown. Large scattering of microhardness is found in perlite due to different diffusion rates of hydrogen because of the unequally oriented cementite plates. It was found that the tendency of materials to blister formation is reduced with the increase of carbon content. The influence of hydrogen on the tribological behaviour of steels under dry and boundary friction has been studied. It is shown that hydrogen desorption intensifies the materials wear. After hydrogen desorption tribological behaviour is determined by the adhesion interaction between the contacting pairs.
Conceptual Propulsion System Design for a Hydrogen-powered Regional Train
Apr 2015
Publication
Many railway vehicles use diesel as their energy source but exhaust emissions and concerns about economical fuel supply demand alternatives. Railway electrification is not cost effective for some routes particularly low-traffic density regional lines. The journey of a regional diesel–electric train is simulated over the British route Birmingham Moor Street to Stratford-upon-Avon and return to establish a benchmark for the conceptual design of a hydrogen-powered and hydrogen-hybrid vehicle. A fuel cell power plant compressed hydrogen at 350 and 700 bar and metal-hydride storage are evaluated. All equipment required for the propulsion can be accommodated within the space of the original diesel– electric train while not compromising passenger-carrying capacity if 700 bar hydrogen tanks are employed. The hydrogen trains are designed to meet the benchmark journey time of 94 min and the operating range of a day without refuelling. An energy consumption reduction of 34% with the hydrogen-powered vehicle and a decrease of 55% with the hydrogen-hybrid train are achieved compared with the original diesel–electric. The well-to-wheel carbon dioxide emissions are lower for the conceptual trains: 55% decrease for the hydrogen-powered and 72% reduction for the hydrogen-hybrid assuming that the hydrogen is produced from natural gas.
Renewable Power and Heat for the Decarbonisation of Energy-Intensive Industries
Dec 2022
Publication
The present review provides a catalogue of relevant renewable energy (RE) technologies currently available (regarding the 2030 scope) and to be available in the transition towards 2050 for the decarbonisation of Energy Intensive Industries (EIIs). RE solutions have been classified into technologies based on the use of renewable electricity and those used to produce heat for multiple industrial processes. Electrification will be key thanks to the gradual decrease in renewable power prices and the conversion of natural-gas-dependent processes. Industrial processes that are not eligible for electrification will still need a form of renewable heat. Among them the following have been identified: concentrating solar power heat pumps and geothermal energy. These can supply a broad range of needed temperatures. Biomass will be a key element not only in the decarbonisation of conventional combustion systems but also as a biofuel feedstock. Biomethane and green hydrogen are considered essential. Biomethane can allow a straightforward transition from fossil-based natural gas to renewable gas. Green hydrogen production technologies will be required to increase their maturity and availability in Europe (EU). EIIs’ decarbonisation will occur through the progressive use of an energy mix that allows EU industrial sectors to remain competitive on a global scale. Each industrial sector will require specific renewable energy solutions especially the top greenhouse gas-emitting industries. This analysis has also been conceived as a starting point for discussions with potential decision makers to facilitate a more rapid transition of EIIs to full decarbonisation.
Design and Performance of a Compact Air-Breathing Jet Hybrid-Electric Engine Coupled With Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
Feb 2021
Publication
A compact air-breathing jet hybrid-electric engine coupled with solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) is proposed to develop the propulsion system with high power-weight ratios and specific thrust. The heat exchanger for preheating air is integrated with nozzles. Therefore the exhaust in the nozzle expands during the heat exchange with compressed air. The nozzle inlet temperature is obviously improved. SOFCs can directly utilize the fuel of liquid natural gas after being heated. The performance parameters of the engine are acquired according to the built thermodynamic and mass models. The main conclusions are as follows. 1) The specific thrust of the engine is improved by 20.25% compared with that of the traditional jet engine. As pressure ratios rise the specific thrust increases up to 1.7 kN/(kg·s−1). Meanwhile the nozzle inlet temperature decreases. However the temperature increases for the traditional combustion engine. 2) The power-weight ratio of the engine is superior to that of internal combustion engines and inferior to that of turbine engines when the power density of SOFC would be assumed to be that predicted for 2030. 3) The total pressure recovery coefficients of SOFCs combustors and preheaters have an obvious influence on the specific thrust of the engine and the power-weight ratio of the engine is strongly affected by the power density of SOFCs.
Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Technology- Europe's Journey to a Greener World
Nov 2017
Publication
On the occasion of its 10th Stakeholder forum the FCH JU published a unique and exclusive book. This book sets out the story behind both the FCH JU and fuel cell and hydrogen technology in Europe. It reviews the events leading to its creation and examines the achievements that have allowed Europe to take a leading role in fuel cell and hydrogen excellence. It also looks at what this investment in fuel cell technology will mean for the EU in the coming years
Deep-Decarbonisation Pathways for UK Industry
Dec 2020
Publication
The Climate Change Committee (CCC) commissioned Element Energy to improve our evidence base on the potential of industrial deep-decarbonisation measures (fuel switching CCS/BECCS measures to reduce methane emissions) and develop pathways for their application. This report summarises the evidence and results of the work including:
- Evidence on the key constraints and costs for technology and infrastructure deployment
- The methodology and new Net Zero Industry Pathway (N-ZIP) model used to determine deep-decarbonisation pathways for UK industry (drawing on the evidence above)
- A set of pathways and wider sensitivities produced using the N-ZIP model which fed into the CCC’s Sixth Carbon Budget pathways
- Recommended actions and policy measures as informed by the study.
Cost Optimization of a Stand-Alone Hybrid Energy System with Fuel Cell and PV
Mar 2020
Publication
Renewable energy has become very popular in recent years. The amount of renewable generation has increased in both grid-connected and stand-alone systems. This is because it can provide clean energy in a cost-effective and environmentally friendly fashion. Among all varieties photovoltaic (PV) is the ultimate rising star. Integration of other technologies with solar is enhancing the efficiency and reliability of the system. In this paper a fuel cell–solar photovoltaic (FC-PV)-based hybrid energy system has been proposed to meet the electrical load demand of a small community center in India. The system is developed with PV panels fuel cell an electrolyzer and hydrogen storage tank. Detailed mathematical modeling of this system as well as its operation algorithm have been presented. Furthermore cost optimization has been performed to determine ratings of PV and Hydrogen system components. The objective is to minimize the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of this standalone system. This optimization is performed in HOMER software as well as another tool using an artificial bee colony (ABC). The results obtained by both methods have been compared in terms of cost effectiveness. It is evident from the results that for a 68 MWh/yr of electricity demand is met by the 129 kW Solar PV 15 kW Fuel cell along with a 34 kW electrolyzer and a 20 kg hydrogen tank with a LPSP of 0.053%. The LCOE is found to be in 0.228 $/kWh. Results also show that use of more sophisticated algorithms such as ABC yields more optimized solutions than package programs such as HOMER. Finally operational details for FC-PV hybrid system using IEC 61850 inter-operable communication is presented. IEC 61850 information models for FC electrolyzer hydrogen tank were developed and relevent IEC 61850 message exchanges for energy management in FC-PV hybrid system are demonstrated.
Green Hydrogen Cost Reduction
Dec 2020
Publication
Scaling up renewables to meet the 1.5ºC climate goal
As global economies aim to become carbon neutral competitive hydrogen produced with renewables has emerged as a key component of the energy mix. Falling renewable power costs and improving electrolyser technologies could make ""green"" hydrogen cost competitive by 2030 this report finds.
Green hydrogen can help to achieve net-zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in energy-intensive hard-to-decarbonise sectors like steel chemicals long-haul transport shipping and aviation. But production costs must be cut to make it economical for countries worldwide. Green hydrogen currently costs between two and three times more than ""blue"" hydrogen which is produced using fossil fuels in combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS).
This report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) outlines strategies to reduce electrolyser costs through continuous innovation performance improvements and upscaling from megawatt (MW) to multi-gigawatt (GW) levels.
Among the findings:
As global economies aim to become carbon neutral competitive hydrogen produced with renewables has emerged as a key component of the energy mix. Falling renewable power costs and improving electrolyser technologies could make ""green"" hydrogen cost competitive by 2030 this report finds.
Green hydrogen can help to achieve net-zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in energy-intensive hard-to-decarbonise sectors like steel chemicals long-haul transport shipping and aviation. But production costs must be cut to make it economical for countries worldwide. Green hydrogen currently costs between two and three times more than ""blue"" hydrogen which is produced using fossil fuels in combination with carbon capture and storage (CCS).
This report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) outlines strategies to reduce electrolyser costs through continuous innovation performance improvements and upscaling from megawatt (MW) to multi-gigawatt (GW) levels.
Among the findings:
- Electrolyser design and construction: Increased module size and innovation with increased stack manufacturing have significant impacts on cost. Increasing plant size from 1 MW (typical in 2020) to 20 MW could reduce costs by over a third. Optimal system designs maximise efficiency and flexibility.
- Economies of scale: Increasing stack production with automated processes in gigawatt-scale manufacturing facilities can achieve a step-change cost reduction. Procurement of materials: Scarcity of materials can impede electrolyser cost reduction and scale-up.
- Efficiency and flexibility in operations: Power supply incurs large efficiency losses at low load limiting system flexibility from an economic perspective.
- Industrial applications: Design and operation of electrolysis systems can be optimised for specific applications in different industries. Learning rates: Based on historic cost declines for solar photovoltaics (PV) the learning rates for fuel cells and electrolysers – whereby costs fall as capacity expands – could reach values between 16% and 21%.
- Ambitious climate mitigation: An ambitious energy transition aligned with key international climate goals would drive rapid cost reduction for green hydrogen. The trajectory needed to limit global warming at 1.5oC could make electrolysers an estimated 40% cheaper by 2030.
Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of Densified Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen as Propulsion Fuel
Jan 2022
Publication
Densified liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen is a promising propulsion fuel in the future. In order to systematically demonstrate the benefits and challenges of densified liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen a transient thermodynamical model considering the heat leakage temperature rise engine thrust pressurization pressure of the tank and wall thickness of tank is developed in the present paper and the performance of densified liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen as propulsion fuel is further evaluated in actual application. For liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen tanks at different structural dimensions the effects of many factors such as temperature rise during propellant ground parking lift of engine thrust mass reduction of the tank structure and extension of spacecraft in‐orbit time are analyzed to demonstrate the comprehensive performance of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen after densification. Meanwhile the problem of subcooling combination matching of liquid hydro‐ gen/liquid oxygen is proposed for the first time. Combining the fuel consumption and engine thrust lifting the subcooling combination matching of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen at different mixing ratios and constant mixing ratios are discussed respectively. The results show that the relative engine thrust enhances by 6.96% compared with the normal boiling point state in the condition of slush hydrogen with 50% solid content and enough liquid oxygen. The in‐orbit time of spacecraft can extend about 2–6.5 days and 24–95 days for slush hydrogen with 50% solid content and liquid oxygen in the triple point state in different cryogenic tanks respectively. Due to temperature rise during parking the existing adiabatic storage scheme and filling scheme for densification LH2 need to be redesigned and for densification LO2 are suitable. It is found that there is an optimal subcooling matching relation after densification of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen as propulsion fuel. In other words the subcooling temperature of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen is not the lower the bet‐ ter but the matching relationship between LH2 subcooling degree and LO2 subcooling degree needs to be considered at the same time. It is necessary that the LO2 was cooled to 69.2 K and 54.5 K when the LH2 of 13.9 K and SH2 with 45% was adopted respectively. This research provides theoretical support for the promotion and application of densification cryogenic propellants.
Macroeconomic Implications of Switching to process-emission-free Iron and Steel Production in Europe
Nov 2018
Publication
Climate change is one of the most serious threats to the human habitat. The required structural change to limit anthropogenic forcing is expected to fundamentally change daily social and economic life. The production of iron and steel is a special case of economic activities since it is not only associated with combustion but particularly with process emissions of greenhouse gases which have to be dealt with likewise. Traditional mitigation options of the sector like efficiency measures substitution with less emission-intensive materials or scrap-based production are bounded and thus insufficient for rapid decarbonization necessary for complying with long-term climate policy targets. Iron and steel products are basic materials at the core of modern socio-economic systems additionally being essential also for other mitigation options like hydro and wind power. Therefore a system-wide assessment of recent technological developments enabling almost complete decarbonization of the sector is substantially relevant. Deploying a recursive-dynamic multi-region multi-sector computable general equilibrium approach we investigate switches from coke-to hydrogen-based iron and steel technologies in a scenario framework where industry decisions (technological choice and timing) and climate policies are mis-aligned. Overall we find that the costs of industry transition are moderate but still ones that may represent a barrier for implementation because the generation deciding on low-carbon technologies and bearing (macro)economic costs might not be the generation benefitting from it. Our macroeconomic assessment further indicates that anticipated bottom-up estimates of required additional domestic renewable electricity tend to be overestimated. Relative price changes in the economy induce electricity substitution effects and trigger increased electricity imports. Sectoral carbon leakage is an imminent risk and calls for aligned course of action of private and public actors.
Experimental Research on Low Calorific Value Gas Blended with Hydrogen Engine
Mar 2019
Publication
Experimental research on performance and emissions of engine fuelled with low calorific value gas blended with hydrogen was carried out and indicated thermal efficiency engine torque indicator diagram pressure rise rate and emissions with different hydrogen ratios were also analyzed. Experimental results show that with the increase of hydrogen fraction and CNG fraction in mixtures the indicated thermal efficiency increased. The engine power output is influenced by both low calorific value and hydrogen fractions. With the increase of hydrogen fraction in mixtures HC emissions decrease CO and NOx emissions increase. An engine operating on lean-burn low calorific value gas blended with hydrogen is favourable for getting lower emissions.
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