United Kingdom
Characterisation, Dispersion and Electrostatic Hazards of Liquid Hydrogen for the PRESLHY Project
Sep 2021
Publication
Liquid hydrogen has the potential to form part of the energy strategy in the future due to the need to decarbonise and replace fossil fuels and therefore could see widespread use. Adoption of LH2 means that the associated hazards need to be understood and managed. In recognition of this the European Union Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking co-funded project PRESLHY undertook prenormative research for the safe use of cryogenic liquid hydrogen in non-industrial settings. Several key scenarios were identified as knowledge gaps and both theoretical and experimental studies were conducted to provide insight into these scenarios. This included experiments studying the evolution/dispersion of a hydrogen cloud following a liquid release and the generation of electrostatic charges in hydrogen plumes and pipework each of which are described and discussed. In addition assessment of the physical phase of the hydrogen flow within the pipework (i.e. liquid gas or two phase) was investigated. The objectives experimental set up and result summary are provided. Data generated from these experiments is to be used to generate and validate theoretical models and ultimately contribute to the development of regulations codes and standards for the storage handling and use of liquid hydrogen.
HyDeploy2: Appliance Testing Summary and Interpretation
Apr 2021
Publication
In order to inform the Quantified Risk Assessment (QRA) and procedures for the Winlaton trial the HyDeploy 2 project has undertaken a second programme of work focused on assessing the safe operation of gas appliances with hydrogen blended gas. This work extends the initial programme of work undertaken in HyDeploy 1 in 2018. Collectively these two projects provide an evidence base to support the project objective to demonstrate that there are no overarching safety concerns for the addition of up to 20 % mol/mol hydrogen to the GB natural gas distribution network.<br/>Click on the supplements tab to view the other documents from this report
HydroGenerally - Episode 1: The Colours of Hydrogen
Mar 2022
Publication
This first episode was inspired by an Innovate UK KTN perspective commenting on the UK government’s Hydrogen Strategy released by the Department of Business Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) in August 2021. Following the publication of this perspective it was very evident to our Innovate UK KTN experts that the uses and challenges of ‘blue’ and ‘green’ hydrogens were generating a strong debate depending on their application areas.
Over a 20-minute discussion Simon Steffan and Sam try to answer the questions: how is hydrogen currently produced? How will it be produced in the future? And how will it fit in with the energy system?
The podcast can be found on their website
Over a 20-minute discussion Simon Steffan and Sam try to answer the questions: how is hydrogen currently produced? How will it be produced in the future? And how will it fit in with the energy system?
The podcast can be found on their website
Perspective on the Hydrogen Economy as a Pathway to Reach Net-zero CO2 Emissions in Europe
Jan 2022
Publication
The envisioned role of hydrogen in the energy transition – or the concept of a hydrogen economy – has varied through the years. In the past hydrogen was mainly considered a clean fuel for cars and/or electricity production; but the current renewed interest stems from the versatility of hydrogen in aiding the transition to CO2 neutrality where the capability to tackle emissions from distributed applications and complex industrial processes is of paramount importance. However the hydrogen economy will not materialise without strong political support and robust infrastructure design. Hydrogen deployment needs to address multiple barriers at once including technology development for hydrogen production and conversion infrastructure co-creation policy market design and business model development. In light of these challenges we have brought together a group of hydrogen researchers who study the multiple interconnected disciplines to offer a perspective on what is needed to deploy the hydrogen economy as part of the drive towards net-zero-CO2 societies. We do this by analysing (i) hydrogen end-use technologies and applications (ii) hydrogen production methods (iii) hydrogen transport and storage networks (iv) legal and regulatory aspects and (v) business models. For each of these we provide key take home messages ranging from the current status to the outlook and needs for further research. Overall we provide the reader with a thorough understanding of the elements in the hydrogen economy state of play and gaps to be filled.
Catalysing Hydrogen Investment: What the Market Needs to Deliver Investment in Hydrogen Infrastructure
Oct 2021
Publication
Written by Arup in collaboration with the GIIA this report is centred on the opinions of investors from around the world gathered through a survey of GIIA members and in-depth interviews. It therefore presents the sentiments of the world’s leading fund managers insurance investors pension funds and a sovereign wealth fund. Their opinions matter because these are the decision makers that hold the purse strings when it comes to private sector investment in hydrogen infrastructure. Many of the facts about hydrogen are well-known to many readers and these are presented in this report drawing on Arup’s research and experience as a global infrastructure advisory firm. However the novelty of this report is that it looks at hydrogen through the uncompromising eyes of investors with analysis of feedback which identifies barriers to investment in the infrastructure required to enable the hydrogen economy. Perhaps most importantly it also proposes interventions that policymakers and regulators could take to overcome the barriers currently faced.<br/>Introduction The sentiments of investors are at the heart of this study with results from the survey presented at the beginning of each section to serve as a launch pad for Arup’s analysis. But we want it to be more than an interesting read; it is a call to action for policy makers to create the right environment to catalyse private sector investment and kickstart the hydrogen economy.
HydroGenerally - Episode 4: Hydrogen in a Global Maritime Industry: Plain Sailing or a Rough Ride?
May 2022
Publication
In this fourth episode Simon Buckley and Matthew Moss from Innovate UK KTN are exploring the use of hydrogen in the global maritime industry alongside their special guest Chester Lewis Business Development Manager at Ryze Hydrogen.
This podcast can be found on their website
This podcast can be found on their website
Evaluating the Opportunity to Repurpose Gas Transmission Assets for Hydrogen Transportation
Sep 2021
Publication
The UK National Transmission System (NTS) is a key enabler to decarbonise the gas network in Great Britain (GB) in order to meet the UK government’s target of net-zero emissions by 2050. FutureGrid is National Grid’s research programme assessing the capability of the transmission system to transport hydrogen. Our goal is to accelerate the decarbonisation of power industry and heat by delivering a safe supply of energy to all customers both during and after the energy transition. FutureGrid will lead to a better understanding of what the technical parameters are around the ultimate role of the NTS in the energy system and how the transition can be managed. Under FutureGrid National Grid will construct a NTS hydrogen test facility at DNV’s Spadeadam testing and research site. NTS assets due to be decommissioned in early RIIO2 will be reconstructed to create a test network that can be used to answer some of the fundamental questions around safety and operation of a converted network. Flows of hydrogen/natural gas blends including 100% hydrogen will be tested for the first time in GB at transmission pressures. This system will connect to the existing H21 distribution network test facility at Spadeadam to prove a complete beach-to-meter network can be decarbonised to develop a comprehensive programme for the hydrogen transition. The project will provide a transmission facility which is a key enabler for more advanced hydrogen testing on industrial equipment such as hydrogen separation technology hydrogen compressors and/or purification of hydrogen for transport. Our paper will detail the current position and aims of the project.
Assessing Damaged Pipelines Transporting Hydrogen
Jun 2022
Publication
There is worldwide interest in transporting hydrogen using both new pipelines and pipelines converted from natural gas service. Laboratory tests investigating the effect of hydrogen on the mechanical properties of pipeline steels have shown that even low partial pressures of hydrogen can substantially reduce properties such as reduction in area and fracture toughness and increase fatigue crack growth rates. However qualitative arguments suggest that the effects on pipelines may not be as severe as predicted from the small scale tests. If the trends seen in laboratory tests do occur in service there are implications for the assessment of damage such as volumetric corrosion dents and mechanical interference. Most pipeline damage assessment methods are semi-empirical and have been calibrated with data from full scale tests that did not involve hydrogen. Hence the European Pipeline Research Group (EPRG) commissioned a study to investigate damage assessment methods in the presence of hydrogen. Two example pipeline designs were considered both were assessed assuming a modern high performance material and an older material. From these analyses the numerical results show that the high toughness material will tolerate damage even if the properties are degraded by hydrogen exposure. However low toughness materials may not be able to tolerate some types of severe damage. If the predictions are realistic operators may have to repair more damage or reduce operating pressures. Furthermore damage involving cracking may not Page 2 of 22 satisfy the ASME B31.12 requirements for preventing time dependent crack growth. Further work is required to determine if the effects predicted using small scale laboratory test data will occur in practice.
An Investigation into the Volumetric Flow Rate Requirement of Hydrogen Transportation in Existing Natural Gas Pipelines and Its Safety Implications
Oct 2021
Publication
As an alternative to the construction of new infrastructure repurposing existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transportation has been identified as a low-cost strategy for substituting natural gas with hydrogen in the wake of the energy transition. In line with that a 342 km 3600 natural gas pipeline was used in this study to simulate some technical implications of delivering the same amount of energy with different blends of natural gas and hydrogen and with 100% hydrogen. Preliminary findings from the study confirmed that a three-fold increase in volumetric flow rate would be required of hydrogen to deliver an equivalent amount of energy as natural gas. The effects of flowing hydrogen at this rate in an existing natural gas pipeline on two flow parameters (the compressibility factor and the velocity gradient) which are crucial to the safety of the pipeline were investigated. The compressibility factor behaviour revealed the presence of a wide range of values as the proportions of hydrogen and natural gas in the blends changed signifying disparate flow behaviours and consequent varying flow challenges. The velocity profiles showed that hydrogen can be transported in natural gas pipelines via blending with natural gas by up to 40% of hydrogen in the blend without exceeding the erosional velocity limits of the pipeline. However when the proportion of hydrogen reached 60% the erosional velocity limit was reached at 290 km so that beyond this distance the pipeline would be subject to internal erosion. The use of compressor stations was shown to be effective in remedying this challenge. This study provides more insights into the volumetric and safety considerations of adopting existing natural gas pipelines for the transportation of hydrogen and blends of hydrogen and natural gas.
Development of a Hydrogen Supplement for use with IGEM/SR/25
Jun 2022
Publication
In response to the UK Government’s commitment to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 a range of research and demonstration projects are underway to investigate the feasibility of using hydrogen in place of natural gas within the national transmission and distribution system. In order for these projects to achieve their full scope of work a mechanism for performing hazardous area classification for hydrogen installations is required. At present IGEM/SR/25 is used to undertake such assessments for natural gas installations but the standard is not currently applicable to hydrogen or hydrogen/natural gas blends.<br/>This report presents updated data and a summary of the recommended methodologies for hazardous area classification of installations using hydrogen or blends of up to 20% hydrogen in natural gas. The contents of this report are intended to provide a technical commentary and the data for a hydrogen-specific supplement to IGEM/SR/25. The supplement will specifically cover 100% hydrogen and a 20/80% by volume blend of hydrogen/natural gas. Reference to intermediate blends is included in this report where appropriate to cover the anticipated step-wise introduction of hydrogen into the natural gas network.<br/>This report is divided into a series of appendices each of which covers a specific area of the IGEM standard. Each appendix includes a summary of specific recommendations made to enable IGEM/SR/25 to be applied to hydrogen and blends of up to 20% hydrogen in natural gas. The reader is encouraged to review the individual appendices for specific conclusions associated with the topic areas addressed in this report.<br/>In general the existing methodologies and approaches used for area classification in IGEM/SR/25 have been deemed appropriate for installations using either hydrogen or blends of up to 20% hydrogen in natural gas. Where necessary revised versions of the equations and zoning distances used in the standard are presented which account for the influence of material property differences between natural gas and the two alternative fuels considered in this work.
“Bigger than Government”: Exploring the Social Construction and Contestation of Net-zero Industrial Megaprojects in England
Jan 2023
Publication
Industry is frequently framed as hard-to-decarbonize given its diversity of requirements technologies and supply chains many of which are unique to particular sectors. Net zero commitments since 2019 have begun to challenge the carbon intensity of these various industries but progress has been slow globally. Against this backdrop the United Kingdom has emerged as a leader in industrial decarbonization efforts. Their approach is based on industrial clusters which cut across engineering spatial and socio-political dimensions. Two of the largest of these clusters in England in terms of industrial emissions are the Humber and Merseyside. In this paper drawn from a rich mixed methods original dataset involving expert interviews (N = 46 respondents) site visits (N = 20) a review of project documents and the academic literature we explore ongoing efforts to decarbonize both the Humber and Merseyside through the lens of spatially expansive and technically complex megaprojects. Both have aggressive implementation plans in place for the deployment of net-zero infrastructure with Zero Carbon Humber seeking billions in investment to build the country’s first large-scale bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) plant alongside a carbon transport network and hydrogen production infrastructure and HyNet seeking billions in investment to build green and blue hydrogen facilities along with a carbon storage network near Manchester and Liverpool. We draw from the social construction of technology (SCOT) literature to examine the relevant social groups interpretive flexibility and patterns of closure associated with Zero Carbon Humber and HyNet. We connect our findings to eight interpretive frames surrounding the collective projects and make connections to problems contestation and closure.
HyDeploy Report: Summary of European Hydrogen Blending Projects
Jun 2018
Publication
Across Europe permitted blend levels of hydrogen blending into the gas grid are appreciably higher than that currently permitted in the UK up to 12% mol/mol compared with 0.1% mol/mol. Whilst there is some routine blending undertaking – typically power to gas applications three major projects have been undertaken to demonstrate operation of a gas distribution network at higher blend levels of hydrogen.<br/>A Dutch project was completed in 2011 which demonstrated successful operation into a network with new appliances at 20% mol/mol. A German project was completed in 2015 which demonstrated successful operation into an existing gas network with existing appliances at their permitted level of 10% mol/mol. In France an extensive programme is underway to inject hydrogen into a network at 20% mol/mol due to commence injection in 2018.<br/>Each of these projects undertook extensive pre-trial activities and operational data was collected during the Dutch and German trials. The programme of pre-trial work for the French project was particularly extensive and mirrored the work done by HyDeploy. This led to a permit being granted for the French project at 20% mol/mol with injection into the network imminent.<br/>The HyDeploy team has engaged with each of the project teams who have been very co-operative; this has enabled scientific sharing of best practice. In all cases the projects were successful. The participants in the Dutch project were particularly keen to have been able to undertake a similar trial to HyDeploy; a larger trial into existing appliances. However political changes in Holland have precluded that at this time such progress was not limited by technical findings from the work.<br/>A high level overview of the projects and the data provided is summarised in this report. More detailed information is referenced and covered in more detail where required in the appropriate individual topic reports supporting the Exemption.<br/>Click on supplements tab to view the other documents from this report
Towards a Sustainable Hydrogen Economy: Optimisation-based Framework for Hydrogen Infrastructure Development
Sep 2016
Publication
This work studies the development of a sustainable hydrogen infrastructure that supports the transition towards a low-carbon transport system in the United Kingdom (UK). The future hydrogen demand is forecasted over time using a logistic diffusion model which reaches 50% of the market share by 2070. The problem is solved using an extension of SHIPMod an optimisation-based framework that consists of a multi-period spatially-explicit mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) formulation. The optimisation model combines the infrastructure elements required throughout the different phases of the transition namely economies of scale road and pipeline transportation modes and carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies in order to minimise the present value of the total infrastructure cost using a discounted cash-flow analysis. The results show that the combination of all these elements in the mathematical formulation renders optimal solutions with the gradual infrastructure investments over time required for the transition towards a sustainable hydrogen economy.
The Role of Renewable Hydrogen and Inter-seasonal Storage in Decarbonising Heat – Comprehensive Optimisation of Future Renewable Energy Value Chains
Nov 2018
Publication
Demands for space and water heating constitute a significant proportion of the total energy demands in Great Britain and are predominantly satisfied through natural gas which makes the heat sector a large emitter of carbon dioxide. Renewable hydrogen which can be injected into the gas grid or used directly in processes for generating heat and/or electricity is being considered as a low-carbon alternative energy carrier to natural gas because of its suitability for large-scale long- and short-term storage and low transportation losses all of which help to overcome the intermittency and seasonal variations in renewables. This requires new infrastructures for production storage transport and utilisation of renewable hydrogen – a hydrogen value chain – the design of which involves many interdependent decisions such as: where to locate wind turbines; where to locate electrolysers close to wind generation or close to demands; whether to transport energy as electricity or hydrogen and how; where to locate storage facilities; etc. This paper presents the Value Web Model a novel and comprehensive spatio-temporal mixed-integer linear programming model that can simultaneously optimise the design planning and operation of integrated energy value chains accounting for short-term dynamics inter-seasonal storage and investments out to 2050. It was coupled with GIS modelling to identify candidate sites for wind generation and used to optimise a number of scenarios for the production of hydrogen from onshore and offshore wind turbines in order to satisfy heat demands. The results show that over a wide range of scenarios the optimal pathway to heat is roughly 20% hydrogen and 80% electricity. Hydrogen storage both in underground caverns and pressurised tanks is a key enabling technology.
An Investigation of a (Vinylbenzyl) Trimethylammonium and N-Vinylimidazole-Substituted Poly (Vinylidene Fluoride-Co-Hexafluoropropylene) Copolymer as an Anion-Exchange Membrane in a Lignin-Oxidising Electrolyser
Jun 2021
Publication
Electrolysis is seen as a promising route for the production of hydrogen from water as part of a move to a wider “hydrogen economy”. The electro-oxidation of renewable feedstocks offers an alternative anode couple to the (high-overpotential) electrochemical oxygen evolution reaction for developing low-voltage electrolysers. Meanwhile the exploration of new membrane materials is also important in order to try and reduce the capital costs of electrolysers. In this work we synthesise and characterise a previously unreported anion-exchange membrane consisting of a fluorinated polymer backbone grafted with imidazole and trimethylammonium units as the ion-conducting moieties. We then investigate the use of this membrane in a lignin-oxidising electrolyser. The new membrane performs comparably to a commercially-available anion-exchange membrane (Fumapem) for this purpose over short timescales (delivering current densities of 4.4 mA cm−2 for lignin oxidation at a cell potential of 1.2 V at 70 °C during linear sweep voltammetry) but membrane durability was found to be a significant issue over extended testing durations. This work therefore suggests that membranes of the sort described herein might be usefully employed for lignin electrolysis applications if their robustness can be improved.
The Role of Advanced Demand-sector Technologies and Energy Demand Reduction in Achieving Ambitious Carbon Budgets
Jan 2019
Publication
Limiting cumulative carbon emissions to keep global temperature increase to well below 2°C (and as low as 1.5°C) is an extremely challenging task requiring rapid reduction in the carbon intensity of all sectors of the economy and with limited leeway for residual emissions. Addressing residual emissions in ‘challenging-to-decarbonise’ sectors such as the industrial and aviation sectors relies on the development and commercialization of innovative advanced technologies currently still in their infancy. The aim of this study was to (a) explore the role of advanced technologies in achieving deep decarbonisation of the energy system and (b) provide technology- specific details of how rapid and deep carbon intensity reductions can be achieved in the energy demand sectors. This was done using TIAM-Grantham – a linear cost optimization model of the global energy system with a detailed representation of demand-side technologies. We find that the inclusion of advanced technologies in the demand sectors together with energy demand reduction through behavioural changes enables the model to achieve the rapid and deep decarbonisation of the energy system associated with limiting global warming to below 2°C whilst at the same time reduces reliance on negative emissions technologies by up to ∼18% compared to the same scenario with a standard set of technologies. Realising such advanced technologies at commercial scales as well as achieving such significant reductions in energy demand represents a major challenge for policy makers businesses and civil society. There is an urgent need for continued R&D efforts in the demand sectors to ensure that advanced technologies become commercially available when we need them and to avoid the gamble of overreliance on negative emissions technologies to offset residual emissions.
Hydrogen Non-premixed Combustion in Enclosure with One Vent and Sustained Release: Numerical Experiments
Sep 2013
Publication
Numerical experiments are performed to understand different regimes of hydrogen non-premixed combustion in an enclosure with passive ventilation through one horizontal or vertical vent located at the top of a wall. The Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model with a reduced chemical reaction mechanism is described in detail. The model is based on the renormalization group (RNG) k-ε turbulence model the eddy dissipation concept (EDC) model for simulation of combustion coupled with the 18-step reduced chemical mechanism (8 species) and the in-situ adaptive tabulation (ISAT) algorithm that accelerates the reacting flow calculations by two to three orders of magnitude. The analysis of temperature and species (hydroxyl hydrogen oxygen water) concentrations in time as well as the velocity through the vent shed a light on regimes and dynamics of indoor hydrogen fires. A well-ventilated fire is simulated in the enclosure at a lower release flow rate and complete combustion of hydrogen within the enclosure. Fire becomes under-ventilated at higher release flow rates with two different modes observed. The first mode is the external flame stabilised at the enclosure vent at moderate release rates and the second mode is the self-extinction of combustion inside and outside the enclosure at higher hydrogen release rates. The simulations demonstrated a complex reacting flow dynamics in the enclosure that leads to formation of the external flame or the self-extinction. The air intake into the enclosure at later stages of the process through the whole vent area is a characteristic feature of the self-extinction regime. This air intake is due to faster cooling of hot combustion products by sustained colder hydrogen leak compared to the generation of hot products by the ceasing chemical reactions inside the enclosure and hydrogen supply. In general an increase of hydrogen sustained release flow rate will change fire regime from the well-ventilated combustion within the enclosure through the external flame stabilised at the vent and finally to the self-extinction of combustion throughout the domain.
EU Hydrogen Strategy: A Case for Urgent Action Towards Implementation
Jul 2020
Publication
Interest in hydrogen as one route to the decarbonisation of energy systems has risen rapidly over the past few years with the publication of a number of hydrogen strategies from countries across the global energy economy. The momentum in Europe has increased sharply this month with the publication of an EU strategy to incorporate hydrogen into its plans for a net zero emission future. This Comment reviews the key elements of this strategy and provides an initial commentary on the main goals. We highlight the challenges that will be faced in meeting hydrogen production targets in particular via the “green hydrogen” route and analyse the plans for expanding the consumption of hydrogen in Europe. We also assess the infrastructure questions that will need to be answered if and when hydrogen takes on a greater role in the region and note the extensive state support that will be needed in the early years of the implementation of the strategy. Despite this though we applaud the ambition laid out by the EU and look forward to the provision of more detailed plans over the coming months and years.
Link to document on OIES website
Link to document on OIES website
Hydrogen Generation on Orkney: Integrating Established Risk Management Best Practice to Emerging Clean Energy Sector
Sep 2021
Publication
The European Marine Energy Centre’s (EMEC) ITEG project (Integrating Tidal Energy into the European Grid) funded by Interreg NWE combines a tidal energy and hydrogen production solution to address grid constraints on the island of Eday in Orkney. The project will install a 0.5MW electrolyser at EMEC’s existing hydrogen production plant. EMEC and Risktec collaboratively applied best practice risk assessment and management techniques to assess and manage hydrogen safety. Hazard identification (HAZID) workshops were conducted collaboratively with design engineers through which a comprehensive hazard register was developed. Risktec applied bowtie analysis to each major accident hazard identified from the hazard register via virtual workshop with design engineers. The bowties promoted a structured review of each hazard’s threat and consequence identifying and reviewing the controls in place against good practice standards. The process revealed some recommendations for further improvement and risk reduction exemplifying a systematic management of risks associated with hydrogen hazards to as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP). Hardware based barriers preventing or mitigating loss of control of these hazards were logged as safety critical elements (SCE) and procedural barriers as safety critical activities (SCA). To ensure that all SCEs and SCAs identified through the risk assessment process are managed throughout the facility’s operational lifetime a safety management system is created giving assurance of overall safety management system continued effectiveness. The process enables the demonstration that design risks are managed to ALARP during design and throughout operational lifetime. More importantly enabling ITEG to progress to construction and operation in 2021.
Progress in Reducing Emissions in Scotland: 2021 Report to Parliament
Dec 2021
Publication
This is the tenth annual Progress Report to the Scottish Parliament as required by the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009. This year’s report shows that in 2019 Scotland’s greenhouse emissions fell by 2% compared to 2018 and are now 44% below 1990 levels. The reductions were largely driven by the manufacturing and construction and fuel supply sectors with electricity generation remaining the biggest driver of emissions cuts over the past decade (2009-2019). The potential for further emissions savings from electricity generation has however largely run out.
The focus must now shift to ensuring that rapid emissions reductions are delivered with no further delay to allow Scotland to meet its legislated 2030 target.
This report and other reports by the Climate Change Committee can be downloaded on their website.
The focus must now shift to ensuring that rapid emissions reductions are delivered with no further delay to allow Scotland to meet its legislated 2030 target.
This report and other reports by the Climate Change Committee can be downloaded on their website.
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