Norway
Rising To the Challenge of a Hydrogen Economy: The Outlook for Emerging Hydrogen Value Chains, From Production to Consumption
Jul 2021
Publication
For many a large-scale hydrogen economy is essential to a a clean energy future with three quarters of the more than 1100 senior energy professionals we surveyed saying Paris Agreement targets will not be possible without it.
DNV’s research Rising to the challenge of a hydrogen economy explores the outlook for emerging hydrogen value chains from production to consumption. It combines the wider view from the energy industry with commentary from business leaders and experts. Our research finds that the challenge is not in the ambition but in changing the timeline: from hydrogen on the horizon to hydrogen in our homes businesses and transport systems.
We see that the energy industry is rising to this challenge. By 2025 almost half (44%) of energy companies globally involved in hydrogen expect it to account for more than a tenth of their revenue rising to 73% of companies by 2030 – up significantly from just 8% of companies today. The research identifies infrastructure and cost as two of the biggest hurdles while the right regulations are deemed the most powerful enabler followed by carbon pricing. Proving the safety case will also be key to scaling the hydrogen economy.
Download your complimentary copy of DNV’s latest hydrogen research at their website link
DNV’s research Rising to the challenge of a hydrogen economy explores the outlook for emerging hydrogen value chains from production to consumption. It combines the wider view from the energy industry with commentary from business leaders and experts. Our research finds that the challenge is not in the ambition but in changing the timeline: from hydrogen on the horizon to hydrogen in our homes businesses and transport systems.
We see that the energy industry is rising to this challenge. By 2025 almost half (44%) of energy companies globally involved in hydrogen expect it to account for more than a tenth of their revenue rising to 73% of companies by 2030 – up significantly from just 8% of companies today. The research identifies infrastructure and cost as two of the biggest hurdles while the right regulations are deemed the most powerful enabler followed by carbon pricing. Proving the safety case will also be key to scaling the hydrogen economy.
Download your complimentary copy of DNV’s latest hydrogen research at their website link
Results of the HySafe CFD Validation Benchmark SBEPV5
Sep 2007
Publication
The different CFD tools used by the NoE HySafe partners are applied to a series of integral complex Standard Benchmark Exercise Problems (SBEPs). All benchmarks cover complementarily physical phenomena addressing application relevant scenarios and refer to associated experiments with an explicit usage of hydrogen. After the blind benchmark SBEPV1 and SBEPV3 with subsonic vertical release in a large vessel and in a garage like facility SBEPV4 with a horizontal under-expanded jet release through a small nozzle SBEPV5 covers the scenario of a subsonic horizontal jet release in a multi-compartment room.<br/>As the associated dispersion experiments conducted by GEXCON Norsk Hydro and STATOIL were disclosed to the participants the whole benchmark was conducted openly. For the purpose of validation only the low momentum test D27 had to be simulated.<br/>The experimental rig consists of a 1.20 m x 0.20 m x 0.90 m (Z vertical) vessel divided into 12 compartments partially even physically by four baffle plates. In each compartment a hydrogen concentration sensor is mounted. There is one vent opening at the wall opposite the release location centrally located about 1 cm above floor with dimensions 0.10 m (Y) times 0.20 m (Z). The first upper baffle plate close to the release point is on a sensitive location as it lies nearly perfectly in the centre of the buoyant jet and thus separates the flow into the two compartments. The actual release was a nominally constant flow of 1.15 norm liters for 60 seconds. With a 12mm nozzle diameter this corresponds to an average exit velocity of 10.17 m/s.<br/>6 CFD packages have been applied by 7 HySafe partners to simulate this experiment: ADREAHF by NCSRD FLACS by GexCon and DNV KFX by DNV FLUENT by UPM and UU CFX by HSE/HSL and GASFLOW by FZK. The results of the different participants are compared against the experimental data. Sensitivity studies were conducted by FZK using GASFLOW and by DNV applying KFX.<br/>Conclusions based on the comparisons and the sensitivity studies related to the performance of the applied turbulence models and discretisation schemes in the release and diffusion phase are proposed. These are compared to the findings of the previous benchmark exercises.
Determination Of Hazardous Zones For A Generic Hydrogen Station – A Case Study
Sep 2007
Publication
A method for determination of hazardous zones for hydrogen installations has been studied. This work has been carried out within the NoE HySafe. The method is based on the Italian Method outlined in Guide 31-30(2004) Guide 31–35(2001) Guide 31-35/A(2001) and Guide 31-35/A; V1(2003). Hazardous zones for a “generic hydrogen refuelling station”(HRS) are assessed based on this method. The method is consistent with the EU directive 1999/92/EC “Safety and Health Protection of Workers potentially at risk from explosive atmospheres” which is the basis for determination of hazardous zones in Europe. This regulation is focused on protection of workers and is relevant for hydrogen installations such as hydrogen refuelling stations repair shops and other stationary installations where some type of work operations will be involved. The method is also based on the IEC standard and European norm IEC/EN60079-10 “Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres. Part 10 Classification of hazardous areas”. This is a widely acknowledged international standard/norm and it is accepted/approved by Fire and Safety Authorities in Europe and also internationally. Results from the HySafe work and other studies relevant for hydrogen and hydrogen installations have been included in the case study. Sensitivity studies have been carried out to examine the effect of varying equipment failure frequencies and leak sizes as well as environmental condition (ventilation obstacles etc.). The discharge and gas dispersion calculations in the Italian Method are based on simple mathematical formulas. However in this work also CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) and other simpler numerical tools have been used to quantitatively estimate the effect of ventilation and of different release locations on the size of the flammable gas cloud. Concentration limits for hydrogen to be used as basis for the extent of the hazardous zones in different situations are discussed.
An Intercomparison Exercise on the Capabilities of CFD Models to Predict Distribution and Mixing of H2 in a Closed Vessel.
Sep 2005
Publication
This paper presents a compilation and discussion of the results supplied by HySafe partners participating in the Standard Benchmark Exercise Problem (SBEP) V1 which is based on an experiment on hydrogen release mixing and distribution inside a vessel. Each partner has his own point of view of the problem and uses a different approach to the solution. The main characteristics of the models employed for the calculations are compared. The comparison between results together with the experimental data when available is made. Relative deviations of each model from the experimental values are also included. Explanations and interpretations of the results are presented together with some useful conclusions for future work.
Safety Distances- Definition and Values
Sep 2005
Publication
In order to facilitate the introduction of a new technology as it is the utilization of hydrogen as an energy carrier development of safety codes and standards besides the conduction of demonstrative projects becomes a very important action to be realized. Useful tools of work could be the existing gaseous fuel codes (natural gas and propane) regulating the stationary and automotive applications. Some safety codes have been updated to include hydrogen but they have been based on criteria and/or data applicable for large industrial facilities making the realization of public hydrogen infrastructures prohibitive in terms of space. In order to solve the above mentioned problems others questions come out: how these safety distances have been defined? Which hazard events have been taken as reference for calculation? Is it possible to reduce the safety distances through an appropriate design of systems and components or through the predisposition of adequate mitigation measures? This paper presents an analysis of the definitions of “safety distances” and “hazardous locations” as well as a synoptic analysis of the different values in force in several States for hydrogen and natural gas. The above mentioned synoptic table will highlight the lacks and so some fields that need to be investigated in order to produce a suitable hydrogen standard.
A Socio-technical Perspective on the Scope for Ports to Enable Energy Transition
Jan 2021
Publication
The paper applies the multi-level perspective (MLP) in a descriptive study of three Norwegian ports to shed new light on the sociotechnical processes that structure their efforts to develop into zero emission energy hubs. While exogenous pressures cause tensions over port governance the studied ports utilize their full spectre of functions; as landlords operators authorities and community managers to enable transition. The respective approaches vary related to their local context market situation and social networks including port's relations with their owners. Individual orientations and organizational capacity further influence their engagement with radical innovation niches (e.g. OPS hydrogen LNG). The study highlights the active role of ports in sustainability transition. It shows how the interaction between geographical factors and institutional work influences the scope for new solutions around the individual port and how this makes for different feedback loops and contributions to sustainability transition in wider transport and energy systems.
A Hydrogen-Air Explosion in a Process Plant: A Case History
Sep 2005
Publication
In the summer of 1985 a severe hydrogen-air explosion occurred in an ammonia plant in Norway. The accident resulted in two fatalities and the destruction of the building where the explosion took place. This paper presents the main findings from an investigation in 1985 and 1986 of the gas explosion and its consequences. The event started when a gasket in a water pump was blown out. The water pump was situated inside a 100 m long 10 m wide and 7 m high building. The pump was feeding water to a vessel containing hydrogen gas at pressure of 30 bars. This pressure caused a back flow of water flow through the pump and out through the failed gasket. The hydrogen reached the leakage point after about 3 minutes. The discharge of gas lasted some 20 to 30 seconds before the explosion occurred. The total mass of the hydrogen discharge was estimated at 10 to 20 kg hydrogen. The main explosion was very violent and it is likely that the gas cloud detonated. The ignition source was almost certainly a hot bearing. Several damage indicators were used to estimate the amount of hydrogen that exploded. The indicators include deflection of pipes and panels distances traveled by fragments and the distribution of glass breakage. We found that 3.5 to 7 kg of hydrogen must have been burning violently in the explosion. Window glass was broken up to 700 m from the centre of the explosion. Concrete blocks originally part of the north wall of the building and weighing 1.2 metric tons were thrown up to 16 meters. The roof of the building was lifted by an estimated 1.5 meters before resettling. The displacement of the roof caused a guillotine break of a 350 mm diameter pipe connected to the vessel that was the source of the original gas discharge. The gas composition in the vessel was 65 - 95 % hydrogen. This resulted in a large horizontal jet fire lasting about 30 seconds. Minor explosions occurred in the plant culvert system.<br/><br/>To our knowledge this gas explosion is one of the largest industrial hydrogen explosions reported. We believe this case history is a valuable reference for those who are investigating the nature of accidental<br/>hydrogen explosions.
An Intercomparison Exercise on the Capabilities of CFD Models to Predict Deflagration of a Large-Scale H2-Air Mixture in Open Atmosphere
Sep 2005
Publication
This paper presents a compilation of the results supplied by HySafe partners participating in the Standard Benchmark Exercise Problem (SBEP) V2 which is based on an experiment on hydrogen combustion that is first described. A list of the results requested from participants is also included. The main characteristics of the models used for the calculations are compared in a very succinct way by using tables. The comparison between results together with the experimental data when available is made through a series of graphs. The results show quite good agreement with the experimental data. The calculations have demonstrated to be sensitive to computational domain size and far field boundary condition.
Validation of Flacs-Hydrogen CFD Consequence Prediction Model Against Large Scale H2 Explosion Experiments in the Flame Facility
Sep 2005
Publication
The FLACS CFD-tool for consequence prediction has been developed continuously since 1980. The initial focus was explosion safety on offshore oil platforms in recent years the tool is also applied to study dispersion hydrogen safety dust explosions and more. A development project sponsored by Norsk Hydro Statoil and Ishikawajima Heavy Industries (IHI) was carried out to improve the modelling and validation of hydrogen dispersion and explosions. In this project GexCon carried out 200 small-scale experiments on dispersion and explosion with H2 and mixtures with H2 and CO or N2. Experiments with varying confinement congestion concentration and ignition location were performed. Since the main purpose of the tests was to produce good validation data all tests were simulated with the FLACS-HYDROGEN tool. The simulations confirmed the ability to predict explosions effects for the wide range of scenarios studied. A few examples of comparisons will be shown. To build confidence in a consequence prediction model it is important that the scales used for validation are as close as possible to reality. Since the hazard to people and facilities and the risk will generally increase with scale validation against large-scale experiments is important. In the 1980s a series of large-scale explosion experiments with H2 was carried out in the Sandia FLAME facility and sponsored by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The FLAME facility is a 30.5m x 1.83m x 2.44m channel tests were performed with H2 concentrations from 7% to 30% with varying degree of top venting (0% 13% and 50%) and congestion (with or without baffles blocking 33% of the channel cross-section). A wide range of flame speeds and overpressures were observed. Comparisons are made between FLACS simulations and FLAME tests. The main conclusion from this validation study is that the precision when predicting H2 explosion consequences with FLACS has been improved to a very acceptable level
An Inter-Comparison Exercise on the Capabilities of CFD Models to Predict the Short and Long Term Distribution and Mixing of Hydrogen in a Garage
Sep 2007
Publication
Alexandros G. Venetsanos,
E. Papanikolaou,
J. García,
Olav Roald Hansen,
Matthias Heitsch,
Asmund Huser,
Wilfried Jahn,
Jean-Marc Lacome,
Thomas Jordan,
H. S. Ledin,
Dmitry Makarov,
Prankul Middha,
Etienne Studer,
Andrei V. Tchouvelev,
Franck Verbecke,
M. M. Voort,
Andrzej Teodorczyk and
M. A. Delichatsios
The paper presents the results of the CFD inter-comparison exercise SBEP-V3 performed within the activity InsHyde internal project of the HYSAFE network of excellence in the framework of evaluating the capability of various CFD tools and modelling approaches in predicting the physical phenomena associated to the short and long term mixing and distribution of hydrogen releases in confined spaces. The experiment simulated was INERIS-TEST-6C performed within the InsHyde project by INERIS consisting of a 1 g/s vertical hydrogen release for 240 s from an orifice of 20 mm diameter into a rectangular room (garage) of dimensions 3.78x7.2x2.88 m in width length and height respectively. Two small openings at the front and bottom side of the room assured constant pressure conditions. During the test hydrogen concentration time histories were measured at 12 positions in the room for a period up to 5160 s after the end of release covering both the release and the subsequent diffusion phases. The benchmark was organized in two phases. The first phase consisted of blind simulations performed prior to the execution of the tests. The second phase consisted of post calculations performed after the tests were concluded and the experimental results made available. The participation in the benchmark was high: 12 different organizations (2 non-HYSAFE partners) 10 different CFD codes and 8 different turbulence models. Large variation in predicted results was found in the first phase of the benchmark between the various modelling approaches. This was attributed mainly to differences in turbulence models and numerical accuracy options (time/space resolution and discretization schemes). During the second phase of the benchmark the variation between predicted results was reduced.
A Microstructure Informed and Mixed-mode Cohesive Zone Approach to Simulating Hydrogen Embrittlement
Mar 2022
Publication
Hydrogen induced failure under uniaxial tension is simulated in a duplex stainless steel considering microstructural feature of the material. There are three key ingredients in the modelling approach: image processing and finite element representation of the experimentally observed microstructure stress driven hydrogen diffusion and diffusion coupled cohesive zone modelling of fracture considering mixed failure mode. The microstructure used as basis for the modelling work is obtained from specimens cut in the transverse and longitudinal directions. It is found that the microstructure significantly influences hydrogen diffusion and fracture. The austenite phase is polygonal and randomly distributed in the transverse direction where a larger effective hydrogen diffusion coefficient and a lower hydrogen fracture resistance is found compared to the specimen in the longitudinal direction where the austenite phase is slender and laminated. This indicates that the proper design and control of the austenite phase help improve hydrogen resistance of duplex stainless steel. The strength of the interface in the shear direction is found to dominate the fracture mode and initiation site which reveals the importance of considering mixed failure mode and calibrating the hydrogen induced strength reduction in shear.
H2FC European Infrastructure; Research Opportunities to Focus on Scientific and Technical Bottlenecks
Sep 2013
Publication
The European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures (ESFRI) recognizes in its roadmap for Research Infrastructures that ?in the near future hydrogen as an energy carrier derived from various other fuels and fuel cells as energy transformers are expected to come into a major role for mobility but also for different other mobile and stationary applications? |1|. This modern hydrogen driven society lags far behind the reality. Because of that it is conform to question the current situation concerning the belief that already most is comprehensively investigated and developed concerning hydrogen technology is correct and already done. From that it appears the hydrogen technology is market ready only partial and not prepared in a sufficient way to get finally included and adopted in modern hydrogen driven society and especially the acceptance of the society is a critical. Beside this critical view through society several scientific and technical bottlenecks still discoverable. Nevertheless it is possible to foster furthermore science and development on hydrogen technology. The ?Integrating European Infrastructure? was created to support science and development of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies towards European strategy for sustainable competitive and secure energy also while identifying scientific and technical bottlenecks to support solutions based on. Its acronym is H2FC European Infrastructure and was formed to integrate the European R&D community around rare and/or unique infrastructural elements that will facilitate and significantly enhance the research and development of hydrogen and fuel cell technology.
Ia-HySafe Standard Benchmark Exercise Sbep-V21- Hydrogen Release and Accumulation within a Non-Ventilated Ambient Pressure Garage at Low Release Rates
Sep 2011
Publication
The successful Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) benchmarking activity originally started within the EC-funded Network of Excellence HySafe (2004-2009) continues within the research topics of the recently established “International Association of Hydrogen Safety” (IA-HySafe). The present contribution reports the results of the standard benchmark problem SBEP-V21. Focus is given to hydrogen dispersion and accumulation within a non-ventilated ambient pressure garage both during the release and post-release periods but for very low release rates as compared to earlier work (SBEP-V3). The current experiments were performed by CEA at the GARAGE facility under highly controlled conditions. Helium was vertically released from the centre of the 5.76 m (length) x 2.96 m (width) x 2.42 m (height) facility 22 cm from the floor from a 29.7 mm diameter opening at a volumetric rate of 18 L/min (0.027 g/s equivalent hydrogen release rate compared to 1 g/s for SBEP-V3) and for a period of 3740 seconds. Helium concentrations were measured with 57 catharometric sensors at various locations for a period up to 1.1 days. The simulations were performed using a variety of CFD codes and turbulence models. The paper compares the results predicted by the participating partners and attempts to identify the reasons for any observed disagreements.
HIAD – Hydrogen Incident and Accident Database
Sep 2011
Publication
The Hydrogen Incident and Accident Database (HIAD) is being developed as a repository of systematic data describing in detail hydrogen-related undesired events (incidents or accidents). It is an open web-based information system serving various purposes such as a data source for lessons learnt risk communication and partly risk assessment. The paper describes the features of the three HIAD modules – the Data Entry Module (DEM) the Data Retrieval Module (DRM) and the Data Analysis Module (DAM) – and the potential impact the database may have on hydrogen safety. The importance of data quality assurance process is also addressed.
Experiments with Release and Ignition of Hydrogen Gas in a 3m Long Channel
Sep 2007
Publication
This paper presents results from laboratory experiments with hydrogen dispersions and explosions in a 3 m long channel. Our objective is to get a better understanding of the phenomena and to develop tools that can analyse hydrogen dispersions and explosions. A total of 5 test series were performed with flow rates of hydrogen from 1.8 dm³/min to 75 dm³/min. The propagation of the combustible hydrogen-air cloud in the channel was observed from high-speed video recordings. The hydrogen-air cloud in the channel behaves as a gravity current and the flow appears to be well described by Froude scaling with a length scale corresponding to the height of a layer of 100 % hydrogen. The Froude numbers observed in the experiments are in good agreement with the theory of "light-fluid intrusion" for gravity currents found in the literature. Numerical simulations with the Flacs code correlate well with the experimental results. The flame propagation indicated that approximately half the height of the channel was filled with combustible mixture. We believe that this Froude scaling can be useful as a tool to analyse the consequences of hydrogen release in buildings channels and tunnels.
Validation of CFD Modelling of LH2 Spread and Evaporation Against Large-Scale Spill Experiments
Sep 2009
Publication
Hydrogen is widely recognized as an attractive energy carrier due to its low-level air pollution and its high mass-related energy density. However its wide flammability range and high burning velocity present a potentially significant hazard. A significant fraction of hydrogen is stored and transported as a cryogenic liquid. Therefore loss of hydrogen containments may lead to the formation of a pool on the ground. In general very large spills will give a pool whereas moderate sized spills may evaporate immediately. Accurate hazard assessments of storage systems require a proper prediction of the liquid hydrogen pool evaporation and spreading. A new pool model handling the spread and the evaporation of liquid spills on different surfaces has recently been developed in the 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) tool FLACS [1-4]. As the influence of geometry on the liquid spread is taken into account in the new pool model realistic industrial scenarios can be investigated. The model has been validated for LNG spills on water with the Burro and Coyote experiments [56]. The model has previously been tested for LH2 release in the framework of the EU-sponsored Network of Excellence HySafe where experiments carried out by BAM were modelled. In the large scale BAM experiments [7] 280 kg of liquid hydrogen was spilled in 6 tests adjacent to buildings. In these tests the pool spreading the evaporation and the cloud formation were investigated. Simulations of these tests are found to compare reasonably well with the experimental results. In the present work the model is extended and the liquid hydrogen spill experiments carried out by NASA are simulated with the new pool model. The large scale NASA experiments [89] consisted of 7 releases of liquefied hydrogen at White Sand New Mexico. The release test 6 is used. During these experiments cloud concentrations were measured at several distances downwind of the spill point. With the new pool model feature the FLACS tool is shown to be an efficient and accurate tool for the investigation of complex and realistic accidental release scenarios of cryogenic liquids.
Benchmark Exercise on Risk Assessment Methods Applied to a Virtual Hydrogen Refuelling Station
Sep 2009
Publication
A benchmarking exercise on quantitative risk assessment (QRA) methodologies has been conducted within the project HyQRA under the framework of the European Network of Excellence (NoE) HySafe. The aim of the exercise was basically twofold: (i) to identify the differences and similarities in approaches in a QRA and their results for a hydrogen installation between nine participating partners representing a broad spectrum of background in QRA culture and history and (ii) to identify knowledge gaps in the various steps and parameters underlying the risk quantification. In the first step a reference case was defined: a virtual hydrogen refuelling station (HRS) in virtual surroundings comprising housing school shops and other vulnerable objects. All partners were requested to conduct a QRA according to their usual approach and experience. Basically participants were free to define representative release cases to apply models and frequency assessments according their own methodology and to present risk according to their usual format. To enable inter-comparison a required set of results data was prescribed like distances to specific thermal radiation levels from fires and distances to specific overpressure levels. Moreover complete documentation of assumptions base data and references was to be reported. It was not surprising that a wide range of results was obtained both in the applied approaches as well as in the quantitative outcomes and conclusions. This made it difficult to identify exactly which assumptions and parameters were responsible for the differences in results as the paper will show. A second phase was defined in which the QRA was determined by a more limited number of release cases (scenarios). The partners in the project agreed to assess specific scenarios in order to identify the differences in consequence assessment approaches. The results of this phase provide a better understanding of the influence of modelling assumptions and limitations on the eventual conclusions with regard to risk to on-site people and to the off-site public. This paper presents the results and conclusions of both stages of the exercise.
Production of Sustainable Hydrogen and Carbon for the Metallurgical Industry
Dec 2021
Publication
Hydrogen will presumably become an important substitute for carbon as a reductant in the metallurgical industry for processes such as steel production. However the challenge to supply enough CO2 -free hydrogen for metallurgical processes has not been resolved yet. This paper reviews different production technologies for hydrogen and their advantages and drawbacks. Additionally it will highlight the development of plasma technology to produce hydrogen and carbon black which has been taking place at SINTEF during the last 30 years.
Status, Gaps and Recommendations Regarding Standardisation and the Use of Hydrogen in Sustainable Buildings
Sep 2013
Publication
The use of and interpretation of Regulations Codes and Standards is important input when developing hydrogen systems and applications. This paper presents the work related to standardisation undertaken by DNV as part of the EU supported project H2SusBuild. During the H2SusBuild project a renewable (solar and wind) based full scale energy system with components for hydrogen storage hydrogen production by electrolysis and hydrogen consumption by fuel cell and burner was built and integrated into an existing office building in Lavrion Greece. The relevant standards identified and applied the standardisation gaps identified and the recommendations made for further standardisation activities are presented.
Application of Hydrides in Hydrogen Storage and Compression: Achievements, Outlook and Perspectives
Feb 2019
Publication
José Bellosta von Colbe,
Jose-Ramón Ares,
Jussara Barale,
Marcello Baricco,
Craig Buckley,
Giovanni Capurso,
Noris Gallandat,
David M. Grant,
Matylda N. Guzik,
Isaac Jacob,
Emil H. Jensen,
Julian Jepsen,
Thomas Klassen,
Mykhaylo V. Lototskyy,
Kandavel Manickam,
Amelia Montone,
Julian Puszkiel,
Martin Dornheim,
Sabrina Sartori,
Drew Sheppard,
Alastair D. Stuart,
Gavin Walker,
Colin Webb,
Heena Yang,
Volodymyr A. Yartys,
Andreas Züttel and
Torben R. Jensen
Metal hydrides are known as a potential efficient low-risk option for high-density hydrogen storage since the late 1970s. In this paper the present status and the future perspectives of the use of metal hydrides for hydrogen storage are discussed. Since the early 1990s interstitial metal hydrides are known as base materials for Ni – metal hydride rechargeable batteries. For hydrogen storage metal hydride systems have been developed in the 2010s [1] for use in emergency or backup power units i. e. for stationary applications.<br/>With the development and completion of the first submarines of the U212 A series by HDW (now Thyssen Krupp Marine Systems) in 2003 and its export class U214 in 2004 the use of metal hydrides for hydrogen storage in mobile applications has been established with new application fields coming into focus.<br/>In the last decades a huge number of new intermetallic and partially covalent hydrogen absorbing compounds has been identified and partly more partly less extensively characterized.<br/>In addition based on the thermodynamic properties of metal hydrides this class of materials gives the opportunity to develop a new hydrogen compression technology. They allow the direct conversion from thermal energy into the compression of hydrogen gas without the need of any moving parts. Such compressors have been developed and are nowadays commercially available for pressures up to 200 bar. Metal hydride based compressors for higher pressures are under development. Moreover storage systems consisting of the combination of metal hydrides and high-pressure vessels have been proposed as a realistic solution for on-board hydrogen storage on fuel cell vehicles.<br/>In the frame of the “Hydrogen Storage Systems for Mobile and Stationary Applications” Group in the International Energy Agency (IEA) Hydrogen Task 32 “Hydrogen-based energy storage” different compounds have been and will be scaled-up in the near future and tested in the range of 500 g to several hundred kg for use in hydrogen storage applications.
Faraday’s Efficiency Modeling of a Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyzer Based on Experimental Data
Sep 2020
Publication
In electrolyzers Faraday’s efficiency is a relevant parameter to assess the amount of hydrogen generated according to the input energy and energy efficiency. Faraday’s efficiency expresses the faradaic losses due to the gas crossover current. The thickness of the membrane and operating conditions (i.e. temperature gas pressure) may affect the Faraday’s efficiency. The developed models in the literature are mainly focused on alkaline electrolyzers and based on the current and temperature change. However the modeling of the effect of gas pressure on Faraday’s efficiency remains a major concern. In proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers the thickness of the used membranes is very thin enabling decreasing ohmic losses and the membrane to operate at high pressure because of its high mechanical resistance. Nowadays high-pressure hydrogen production is mandatory to make its storage easier and to avoid the use of an external compressor. However when increasing the hydrogen pressure the hydrogen crossover currents rise particularly at low current densities. Therefore faradaic losses due to the hydrogen crossover increase. In this article experiments are performed on a commercial PEM electrolyzer to investigate Faraday’s efficiency based on the current and hydrogen pressure change. The obtained results have allowed modeling the effects of Faraday’s efficiency by a simple empirical model valid for the studied PEM electrolyzer stack. The comparison between the experiments and the model shows very good accuracy in replicating Faraday’s efficiency.
Strategies for the Sampling of Hydrogen at Refuelling Stations for Purity Assessment
Aug 2021
Publication
Hydrogen delivered at hydrogen refuelling station must be compliant with requirements stated in different standards which require specialized sampling device and personnel to operate it. Currently different strategies are implemented in different parts of the world and these strategies have already been used to perform 100s of hydrogen fuel sampling in USA EU and Japan. However these strategies have never been compared on a large systematic study. The purpose of this paper is to describe and compare the different strategies for sampling hydrogen at the nozzle and summarize the key aspects of all the existing hydrogen fuel sampling including discussion on material compatibility with the impurities that must be assessed. This review highlights the fact it is currently difficult to evaluate the impact or the difference these strategies would have on the hydrogen fuel quality assessment. Therefore comparative sampling studies are required to evaluate the equivalence between the different sampling strategies. This is the first step to support the standardization of hydrogen fuel sampling and to identify future research and development area for hydrogen fuel sampling.
Exploring the Complexity of Hydrogen Perception and Acceptance Among Key Stakeholders in Norway
Nov 2022
Publication
This article explores the complexity of factors or mechanisms that can influence hydrogen stakeholder perception and acceptance in Norway. We systematically analyze 16 semi-structured in-depth interviews with industry stakeholders at local municipal regional and national levels of interest and authority in Norway. Four empirical dimensions are identified that highlight the need for whole system approaches in hydrogen technology research: (1) several challenges incentives and synergy effects influence the hydrogen transition; (2) transport preferences are influenced by combined needs and limitations; (3) levels of knowledge and societal trust determinant to perceptions of risk and acceptance; and (4) national and international hydrogen stakeholders are crucial to building incentives and securing commitment among key actors. Our findings imply that project management planners engineers and policymakers need to apply a whole system perspective and work across local regional and national levels before proceeding with large-scale development and implementation of the hydrogen supply chain.
Can Methane Pyrolysis Based Hydrogen Production Lead to the Decarbonisation of Iron and Steel Industry?
Mar 2021
Publication
Decarbonisation of the iron and steel industry would require the use of innovative low-carbon production technologies. Use of 100% hydrogen in a shaft furnace (SF) to reduce iron ore has the potential to reduce emissions from iron and steel production significantly. In this work results from the techno-economic assessment of a H2-SF connected to an electric arc furnace(EAF) for steel production are presented under two scenarios. In the first scenario H2 is produced from molten metal methane pyrolysis in an electrically heated liquid metal bubble column reactor. Grid connected low-temperature alkaline electrolyser was considered for H2 production in the second scenario. In both cases 59.25 kgH2 was required for the production of one ton of liquid steel (tls). The specific energy consumption (SEC) for the methane pyrolysis based system was found to be 5.16 MWh/tls. The system used 1.51 MWh/tls of electricity and required 263 kg/tls of methane corresponding to an energy consumption of 3.65 MWh/tls. The water electrolysis based system consumed 3.96 MWh/tls of electricity at an electrolyser efficiency of 50 KWh/kgH2. Both systems have direct emissions of 129.4 kgCO2/tls. The indirect emissions are dependent on the source of natural gas pellet making process and the grid-emission factor. Indirect emissions for the electrolysis based system could be negligible if the electricity is generated from renewable energy sources. The levellized cost of production(LCOP) was found to be $631 and $669 respectively at a discount rate of 8% for a plant-life of 20 years. The LCOP of a natural gas reforming based direct reduction steelmaking plant of operating under similar conditions was found to be $414. Uncertainty analysis was conducted for the NPV and IRR values.
Projecting the Future Cost of PEM and Alkaline Water Electrolysers; a CAPEX Model Including Electrolyser Plant Size and Technology Department
Oct 2022
Publication
The investment costs of water electrolysis represent one key challenge for the realisation of renewable hydrogen-based energy systems. This work presents a technology cost assessment and outlook towards 2030 for alkaline electrolysers (AEL) and PEM electrolysers (PEMEL) in the MW to GW range taking into consideration the effects of plant size and expected technology developments. Critical selected data was fitted to a modified power law to describe the cost of an electrolyser plant based on the overall capacity and a learning/technology development rate to derive cost estimations for different PEMEL and AEL plant capacities towards 2030. The analysis predicts that the CAPEX gap between AEL and PEMEL technologies will decrease significantly towards 2030 with plant size until 1 e10 MW range. Beyond this only marginal cost reductions can be expected with CAPEX values approaching 320e400 $/kW for large scale (greater than 100 MW) plants by 2030 with subsequent cost reductions possible. Learning rates for electrolysers were estimated at 25 e30% for both AEL and PEMEL which are significantly higher than the learning rates reported in previous literature.
Powering Europe with North Sea Offshore Wind: The Impact of Hydrogen Investments on Grid Infrastructure and Power Prices
Oct 2022
Publication
Hydrogen will be a central cross-sectoral energy carrier in the decarbonization of the European energy system. This paper investigates how a large-scale deployment of green hydrogen production affects the investments in transmission and generation towards 2060 analyzes the North Sea area with the main offshore wind projects and assesses the development of an offshore energy hub. Results indicate that the hydrogen deployment has a tremendous impact on the grid development in Europe and in the North Sea. Findings indicate that total power generation capacity increases around 50%. The offshore energy hub acts mainly as a power transmission asset leads to a reduction in total generation capacity and is central to unlock the offshore wind potential in the North Sea. The effect of hydrogen deployment on power prices is multifaceted. In regions where power prices have typically been lower than elsewhere in Europe it is observed that hydrogen increases the power price considerably. However as hydrogen flexibility relieves stress in high-demand periods for the grid power prices decrease in average for some countries. This suggests that while the deployment of green hydrogen will lead to a significant increase in power demand power prices will not necessarily experience a large increase.
Techno-economic Assessment of Blue and Green Ammonia as Energy Carriers in a Low-carbon Future
Feb 2022
Publication
Ammonia is an industrial chemical and the basic building block for the fertilizer industry. Lately attention has shifted towards using ammonia as a carbon-free energy vector due to the ease of transportation and storage in liquid state at − 33 ◦C and atmospheric pressure. This study evaluates the prospects of blue and green ammonia as future energy carriers; specifically the gas switching reforming (GSR) concept for H2 and N2 co-production from natural gas with inherent CO2 capture (blue) and H2 generation through an optimized value chain of wind and solar power electrolysers cryogenic N2 supply and various options for energy storage (green). These longer term concepts are benchmarked against conventional technologies integrating CO2 capture: the Kellogg Braun & Root (KBR) Purifier process and the Linde Ammonia Concept (LAC). All modelled plants utilize the same ammonia synthesis loop for a consistent comparison. A cash flow analysis showed that the GSR concept achieved an attractive levelized cost of ammonia (LCOA) of 332.1 €/ton relative to 385.1–385.9 €/ton for the conventional plants at European energy prices (6.5 €/GJ natural gas and 60 €/MWh electricity). Optimal technology integration for green ammonia using technology costs representative of 2050 was considerably more expensive: 484.7–772.1 €/ton when varying the location from Saudi Arabia to Germany. Furthermore the LCOA of the GSR technology drops to 192.7 €/ton when benefitting from low Saudi Arabian energy costs (2 €/GJ natural gas and 40 €/MWh electricity). This cost difference between green and blue ammonia remained robust in sensitivity analyses where input energy cost (natural gas or wind/solar power) was the most influential parameter. Given its low production costs and the techno-economic feasibility of international ammonia trade advanced blue ammonia production from GSR offers an attractive pathway for natural gas exporting regions to contribute to global decarbonization.
An Extensive Review of Liquid Hydrogen in Transportation with Focus on the Maritime Sector
Sep 2022
Publication
The European Green Deal aims to transform the EU into a modern resource-efficient and competitive economy. The REPowerEU plan launched in May 2022 as part of the Green Deal reveals the willingness of several countries to become energy independent and tackle the climate crisis. Therefore the decarbonization of different sectors such as maritime shipping is crucial and may be achieved through sustainable energy. Hydrogen is potentially clean and renewable and might be chosen as fuel to power ships and boats. Hydrogen technologies (e.g. fuel cells for propulsion) have already been implemented on board ships in the last 20 years mainly during demonstration projects. Pressurized tanks filled with gaseous hydrogen were installed on most of these vessels. However this type of storage would require enormous volumes for large long-range ships with high energy demands. One of the best options is to store this fuel in the cryogenic liquid phase. This paper initially introduces the hydrogen color codes and the carbon footprints of the different production techniques to effectively estimate the environmental impact when employing hydrogen technologies in any application. Afterward a review of the implementation of liquid hydrogen (LH2 ) in the transportation sector including aerospace and aviation industries automotive and railways is provided. Then the focus is placed on the maritime sector. The aim is to highlight the challenges for the adoption of LH2 technologies on board ships. Different aspects were investigated in this study from LH2 bunkering onboard utilization regulations codes and standards and safety. Finally this study offers a broad overview of the bottlenecks that might hamper the adoption of LH2 technologies in the maritime sector and discusses potential solutions.
Techno-economic Modelling of Zero-emission Marine Transport with Hydrogen Fuel and Superconducting Propulsion System: Case Study of a Passenger Ferry
Mar 2023
Publication
This paper proposes a techno-economic model for a high-speed hydrogen ferry. The model can describe the system properties i.e. energy demand weight and daily operating expenses of the ferry. A novel aspect is the consideration of superconductivity as a measure for cost saving in the setting where liquid hydrogen (LH2) can be both coolant and fuel. We survey different scenarios for a high-speed ferry that could carry 300 passengers. The results show that despite higher energy demand compressed hydrogen gas is more economical compared with LH2 for now; however constructing large-scale hydrogen liquefaction plants make it competitive in the future. Moreover compressed hydrogen gas is restricted to a shorter distance while LH2 makes longer distances possible and whenever LH2 is accessible using a superconducting propulsion system has a beneficial impact on both energy and cost savings. These effects strengthen if the operational time or the weight of the ferry increases.
Decarbonizing China’s Energy System – Modeling the Transformation of the Electricity, Transportation, Heat, and Industrial Sectors
Nov 2019
Publication
Growing prosperity among its population and an inherent increasing demand for energy complicate China’s target of combating climate change while maintaining its economic growth. This paper therefore describes three potential decarbonization pathways to analyze different effects for the electricity transport heating and industrial sectors until 2050. Using an enhanced version of the multi-sectoral open-source Global Energy System Model enables us to assess the impact of different CO2 budgets on the upcoming energy system transformation. A detailed provincial resolution allows for the implementation of regional characteristics and disparities within China. Conclusively we complement the model-based analysis with a quantitative assessment of current barriers for the needed transformation. Results indicate that overall energy system CO2 emissions and in particular coal usage have to be reduced drastically to meet (inter-) national climate targets. Specifically coal consumption has to decrease by around 60% in 2050 compared to 2015. The current Nationally Determined Contributions proposed by the Chinese government of peaking emissions in 2030 are therefore not sufficient to comply with a global CO2 budget in line with the Paris Agreement. Renewable energies in particular photovoltaics and onshore wind profit from decreasing costs and can provide a more sustainable and cheaper energy source. Furthermore increased stakeholder interactions and incentives are needed to mitigate the resistance of local actors against a low-carbon transformation.
Dynamic Process Modeling of Topside Systems for Evaluating Power Consumption and Possibilities of Using Wind Power
Dec 2022
Publication
Norwegian offshore wind farms may be able to supply power to offshore oil and gas platforms in the near future thanks to the expeditious development of offshore wind technology. This would result in a reduction in CO2 emissions from oil and gas offshore installations which are currently powered predominantly by gas turbines. The challenge with using wind power is that offshore oil and gas installations require a fairly constant and stable source of power whereas wind power typically exhibits significant fluctuations over time. The purpose of this study is to perform a technical feasibility evaluation of using wind power to supply an offshore oil and gas installation on the basis of dynamic process simulations. Throughout the study only the topside processing system is considered since it is the most energy-intensive part of an oil and gas facility. An offshore field on the Norwegian Continental Shelf is used as a case study. The results indicate that when the processing system operates in steady-state conditions it cannot be powered solely by wind energy and another power source is required to compensate for low wind power generation intervals. An alternative would be to store wind energy during periods of high generation (e.g. by producing hydrogen or ammonia) and use it during periods of low generation. Utilizing energy storage methods wind energy can be continuously used for longer periods of time and provide a suitable constant power source for the studied case. Higher constant power can also be provided by increasing the efficiency of energy recovery and storage processes. Alternatively these two technologies may be integrated with gas turbines if the required storage cannot be provided or higher power is required. It was estimated that the integration of wind energy could result in noticeable reductions in CO2 emissions for the case study. Additionally according to the results the production storage and reuse of hydrogen and ammonia on-site may be viable options for supplying power.
A CFD Analysis of Liquefied Gas Vessel Explosions
Dec 2021
Publication
Hydrogen is one of the most suitable candidates in replacing fossil fuels. However storage issues due to its very low density under ambient conditions are encountered in many applications. The liquefaction process can overcome such issues by increasing hydrogen’s density and thus enhancing its storage capacity. A boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) is a phenomenon in liquefied gas storage systems. It is a physical explosion that might occur after the catastrophic rupture of a vessel containing a liquid with a temperature above its boiling point at atmospheric pressure. Even though it is an atypical accident scenario (low probability) it should be always considered due to its high yield consequences. For all the above-mentioned reasons the BLEVE phenomenon for liquid hydrogen (LH2) vessels was studied using the CFD methodology. Firstly the CFD model was validated against a well-documented CO2 BLEVE experiment. Secondly hydrogen BLEVE cases were simulated based on tests that were conducted in the 1990s on LH2 tanks designed for automotive purposes. The parametric CFD analysis examined different filling degrees initial pressures and temperatures of the tank content with the aim of comprehending to what extent the initial conditions influence the blast wave. Good agreement was shown between the simulation outcomes and the LH2 bursting scenario tests results.
Design of Gravimetric Primary Standards for Field-testing of Hydrogen Refuelling Stations
Apr 2020
Publication
The Federal Institute of Metrology METAS developed a Hydrogen Field Test Standard (HFTS) that can be used for field verification and calibration of hydrogen refuelling stations. The testing method is based on the gravimetric principle. The experimental design of the HFTS as well as the description of the method are presented here.
Materials for Hydrogen-based Energy Storage - Past, Recent Progress and Future Outlook
Dec 2019
Publication
Michael Hirscher,
Volodymyr A. Yartys,
Marcello Baricco,
José Bellosta von Colbe,
Didier Blanchard,
Robert C. Bowman Jr.,
Darren P. Broom,
Craig Buckley,
Fei Chang,
Ping Chen,
Young Whan Cho,
Jean-Claude Crivello,
Fermin Cuevas,
William I. F. David,
Petra E. de Jongh,
Roman V. Denys,
Martin Dornheim,
Michael Felderhoff,
Yaroslav Filinchuk,
George E. Froudakis,
David M. Grant,
Evan MacA. Gray,
Bjørn Christian Hauback,
Teng He,
Terry D. Humphries,
Torben R. Jensen,
Sangryun Kim,
Yoshitsugu Kojima,
Michel Latroche,
Hai-wen Li,
Mykhaylo V. Lototskyy,
Joshua W. Makepeace,
Kasper T. Møller,
Lubna Naheed,
Peter Ngene,
Dag Noreus,
Magnus Moe Nygård,
Shin-ichi Orimo,
Mark Paskevicius,
Luca Pasquini,
Dorthe B. Ravnsbæk,
M. Veronica Sofianos,
Terrence J. Udovic,
Tejs Vegge,
Gavin Walker,
Colin Webb,
Claudia Weidenthaler and
Claudia Zlotea
Globally the accelerating use of renewable energy sources enabled by increased efficiencies and reduced costs and driven by the need to mitigate the effects of climate change has significantly increased research in the areas of renewable energy production storage distribution and end-use. Central to this discussion is the use of hydrogen as a clean efficient energy vector for energy storage. This review by experts of Task 32 “Hydrogen-based Energy Storage” of the International Energy Agency Hydrogen TCP reports on the development over the last 6 years of hydrogen storage materials methods and techniques including electrochemical and thermal storage systems. An overview is given on the background to the various methods the current state of development and the future prospects. The following areas are covered; porous materials liquid hydrogen carriers complex hydrides intermetallic hydrides electro-chemical storage of energy thermal energy storage hydrogen energy systems and an outlook is presented for future prospects and research on hydrogen-based energy storage
On the Evaluation of ALD TiO 2 , ZrO 2 and HfO 2 Coatings on Corrosion and Cytotoxicity Performances
May 2021
Publication
Magnesium alloys have been widely studied as materials for temporary implants but their use has been limited by their corrosion rate. Recently coatings have been proven to provide an effective barrier. Though only little explored in the field Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) stands out as a coating technology due to the outstanding film conformality and density achievable. Here we provide first insights into the corrosion behavior and the induced biological response of 100 nm thick ALD TiO2 HfO2 and ZrO2 coatings on AZ31 alloy by means of potentiodynamic polarization curves electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) hydrogen evolution and MTS colorimetric assay with L929 cells. All three coatings improve the corrosion behavior and cytotoxicity of the alloy. Particularly HfO2 coatings were characterized by the highest corrosion resistance and cell viability slightly higher than those of ZrO2 coatings. TiO2 was characterized by the lowest corrosion improvements and though generally considered a biocompatible coating was found to not meet the demands for cellular applications (it was characterized by grade 3 cytotoxicity after 5 days of culture). These results reveal a strong link between biocompatibility and corrosion resistance and entail the need of taking the latter into consideration in the choice of a biocompatible coating to protect degradable Mg-based alloys.
Technologies and Policies to Decarbonize Global Industry: Review and Assessment of Mitigation Drivers Through 2070
Mar 2020
Publication
Jeffrey Rissman,
Chris Bataille,
Eric Masanet,
Nate Aden,
William R. Morrow III,
Nan Zhou,
Neal Elliott,
Rebecca Dell,
Niko Heeren,
Brigitta Huckestein,
Joe Cresko,
Sabbie A. Miller,
Joyashree Roy,
Paul Fennell,
Betty Cremmins,
Thomas Koch Blank,
David Hone,
Ellen D. Williams,
Stephane de la Rue du Can,
Bill Sisson,
Mike Williams,
John Katzenberger,
Dallas Burtraw,
Girish Sethi,
He Ping,
David Danielson,
Hongyou Lu,
Tom Lorber,
Jens Dinkel and
Jonas Helseth
Fully decarbonizing global industry is essential to achieving climate stabilization and reaching net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050–2070 is necessary to limit global warming to 2 °C. This paper assembles and evaluates technical and policy interventions both on the supply side and on the demand side. It identifies measures that employed together can achieve net zero industrial emissions in the required timeframe. Key supply-side technologies include energy efficiency (especially at the system level) carbon capture electrification and zero-carbon hydrogen as a heat source and chemical feedstock. There are also promising technologies specific to each of the three top-emitting industries: cement iron & steel and chemicals & plastics. These include cement admixtures and alternative chemistries several technological routes for zero-carbon steelmaking and novel chemical catalysts and separation technologies. Crucial demand-side approaches include material-efficient design reductions in material waste substituting low-carbon for high-carbon materials and circular economy interventions (such as improving product longevity reusability ease of refurbishment and recyclability). Strategic well-designed policy can accelerate innovation and provide incentives for technology deployment. High-value policies include carbon pricing with border adjustments or other price signals; robust government support for research development and deployment; and energy efficiency or emissions standards. These core policies should be supported by labeling and government procurement of low-carbon products data collection and disclosure requirements and recycling incentives. In implementing these policies care must be taken to ensure a just transition for displaced workers and affected communities. Similarly decarbonization must complement the human and economic development of low- and middle-income countries.
Improving Carbon Efficiency and Profitability of the Biomass to Liquid Process with Hydrogen from Renewable Power
Aug 2018
Publication
A process where power and biomass are converted to Fischer-Tropsch liquid fuels (PBtL) is compared to a conventional Biomass-to-Liquid (BtL) process concept. Based on detailed process models it is demonstrated that the carbon efficiency of a conventional Biomass to Liquid process can be increased from 38 to more than 90% by adding hydrogen from renewable energy sources. This means that the amount of fuel can be increased by a factor of 2.4 with the same amount of biomass. Electrical power is applied to split water/steam at high temperature over solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOEC). This technology is selected because part of the required energy can be replaced by available heat. The required electrical power for the extra production is estimated to be 11.6 kWh per liter syncrude (C ) 5+ . By operating the SOEC iso-thermally close to 850 °C the electric energy may be reduced to 9.5 kWh per liter which is close to the energy density of jet fuel. A techno-economic analysis is performed where the total investments and operating costs are compared for the BtL and PBtL. With an electrical power price of 0.05 $/kWh and with SOEC investment cost of the 1000 $/kW(el) the levelized cost of producing advanced biofuel with the PBtL concept is 1.7 $/liter which is approximately 30% lower than for the conventional BtL. Converting excess renewable electric power to advanced biofuel in a PBtL plant is a sensible way of storing energy as a fuel with a relatively high energy density.
Publication Handbook for Hydrogen Fuelled Vessels
Jun 2021
Publication
Green hydrogen could play a crucial role in the maritime industry’s journey towards decarbonization. Produced through electrolysis hydrogen is emission free and could be widely available across the globe in future – as a marine fuel or a key enabler for synthetic fuels. Many in shipping recognize hydrogen’s potential as a fuel but the barriers to realizing this potential are substantial.<br/>The 1st Edition of the ‘Handbook for Hydrogen-fuelled Vessels’ offers a road map towards safe hydrogen operations using fuel cells. It details how to navigate the complex requirements for design and construction and it covers the most important aspects of hydrogen operations such as safety and risk mitigation engineering details for hydrogen systems and implementation phases for maritime applications based on the current regulatory Alternative Design process framework.<br/>This publication is the result of the 1st phase of the DNV-led Joint Industry Project MarHySafe which has brought together a consortium of 26 leading company and associations. The project is ongoing and this publication will be continually updated to reflect the latest industry expertise on hydrogen as ship fuel.
The Role of Hydrogen in the Transition from a Petroleum Economy to a Low-carbon Society
Jun 2021
Publication
A radical decarbonization pathway for the Norwegian society towards 2050 is presented. The paper focuses on the role of hydrogen in the transition when present Norwegian petroleum export is gradually phased out. The study is in line with EU initiatives to secure cooperation opportunities with neighbouring countries to establish an international hydrogen market. Three analytical perspectives are combined. The first uses energy models to investigate the role of hydrogen in an energy and power market perspective without considering hydrogen export. The second uses an economic equilibrium model to examine the potential role of hydrogen export in value creation. The third analysis is a socio-technical case study on the drivers and barriers for hydrogen production in Norway. Main conclusions are that access to renewable power and hydrogen are prerequisites for decarbonization of transport and industrial sectors in Norway and that hydrogen is a key to maintain a high level of economic activity. Structural changes in the economy impacts of new technologies and key enablers and barriers in this transition are discussed.
Drop-in and Hydrogen-based Biofuels for Maritime Transport: Country-based Assessment of Climate Change Impacts in Europe up to 2050
Nov 2022
Publication
Alternative fuels are crucial to decarbonize the European maritime transport but their net climate benefits vary with the type of fuel and production country. In this study we assess the energy potential and climate change mitigation benefits of using agricultural and forest residues in different European countries for drop-in (Fast Pyrolysis Hydrothermal Liquefaction and Gasification to Fischer-Tropsch fuels or Bio-Synthetic Natural Gas) and hydrogen-based biofuels (hydrogen ammonia and methanol) with or without carbon capture and storage (CCS). Our results show the combinations of countries and biofuel options that successfully achieve the decarbonization targets set by the FuelEU Maritime initiative for the next years including a prospective analysis that include technological changes projected for the biofuel supply chains until 2050. With the current technologies the largest greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential per year at a European scale is obtained with bio-synthetic natural gas and hydrothermal liquefaction. Among carbon-free biofuels ammonia currently has higher mitigation but hydrogen can achieve a lower GHG intensity per unit of energy with the projected decarbonization of the electricity mixes until 2050. The full deployment of CCS can further accelerate the decarbonization of the maritime sector. Choosing the most suitable renewable fuels requires a regional perspective and a transition roadmap where countries coordinate actions to meet ambitious climate targets.
The Impact of Process Heat on the Decarbonisation Potential of Offshore Installations by Hybrid Energy Systems
Dec 2021
Publication
An opportunity to decarbonise the offshore oil and gas sector lies in the integration of renewable energy sources with energy storage in a hybrid energy system (HES). Such concept enables maximising the exploitation of carbon-free renewable power while minimising the emissions associated with conventional power generation systems such as gas turbines. Offshore plants in addition to electrical and mechanical power also require process heat for their operation. Solutions that provide low-emission heat in parallel to power are necessary to reach a very high degree of decarbonisation. This paper investigates different options to supply process heat in offshore HES while the electric power is mostly covered by a wind turbine. All HES configurations include energy storage in the form of hydrogen tied to proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysers and fuel cells stacks. As a basis for comparison a standard configuration relying solely on a gas turbine and a waste heat recovery unit is considered. A HES combined with a waste heat recovery unit to supply heat proved efficient when low renewable power capacity is integrated but unable to deliver a total CO2 emission reduction higher than around 40%. Alternative configurations such as the utilization of gas-fired or electric heaters become more competitive at large installed renewable capacity approaching CO2 emission reductions of up to 80%.
Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulations of Hydrogen Releases and Vented Deflagrations in Large Enclosures
Nov 2019
Publication
This paper presents model predictions obtained with the CFD tool FLACS for hydrogen releases and vented deflagrations in containers and larger enclosures. The paper consists of two parts. The first part compares experimental results and model predictions for two test cases: experiments performed by Gexcon in 20-foot ISO containers (volume 33 m3 ) as part of the HySEA project and experiments conducted by SRI International and Sandia National Laboratories in a scaled warehouse geometry (volume 45.4 m3 ). The second part explores the use of the model system validated in the first part to accidental releases of hydrogen from forklift trucks inside a full-scale warehouse geometry (32 400 m3 ). The results demonstrate the importance of using realistic and reasonably accurate geometry models of the systems under consideration when performing CFD-based risk assessment studies. The discussion highlights the significant inherent uncertainty associated with quantitative risk assessments for vented hydrogen deflagrations in complex geometries. The suggestions for further work include a pragmatic approach for developing empirical correlations for pressure loads from vented hydrogen deflagrations in industrial warehouses with hydrogen-powered forklift trucks.
Operating Hydrogen-Based Energy Storage Systems in Wind Farms for Smooth Power Injection: A Penalty Fees Aware Model Predictive Control
Aug 2022
Publication
Smooth power injection is one of the possible services that modern wind farms could provide in the not-so-far future for which energy storage is required. Indeed this is one among the three possible operations identified by the International Energy Agency (IEA)-Hydrogen Implementing Agreement (HIA) within the Task 24 final report that may promote their integration into the main grid in particular when paired to hydrogen-based energy storages. In general energy storage can mitigate the inherent unpredictability of wind generation providing that they are deployed with appropriate control algorithms. On the contrary in the case of no storage wind farm operations would be strongly affected as well as their economic performances since the penalty fees wind farm owners/operators incur in case of mismatches between the contracted power and that actually delivered. This paper proposes a Model Predictive Control (MPC) algorithm that operates a Hydrogen-based Energy Storage System (HESS) consisting of one electrolyzer one fuel cell and one tank paired to a wind farm committed to smooth power injection into the grid. The MPC relies on Mixed-Logic Dynamic (MLD) models of the electrolyzer and the fuel cell in order to leverage their advanced features and handles appropriate cost functions in order to account for the operating costs the potential value of hydrogen as a fuel and the penalty fee mechanism that may negatively affect the expected profits generated by the injection of smooth power. Numerical simulations are conducted by considering wind generation profiles from a real wind farm in the center-south of Italy and spot prices according to the corresponding market zone. The results show the impact of each cost term on the performances of the controller and how they can be effectively combined in order to achieve some reasonable trade-off. In particular it is highlighted that a static choice of the corresponding weights can lead to not very effective handling of the effects given by the combination of the system conditions with the various exogenous’ while a dynamic choice may suit the purpose instead. Moreover the simulations show that the developed models and the set-up mathematical program can be fruitfully leveraged for inferring indications on the devices’ sizing.
A Hybrid Perspective on Energy Transition Pathways: Is Hydrogen the Key for Norway?
Jun 2021
Publication
Hydrogen may play a significant part in sustainable energy transition. This paper discusses the sociotechnical interactions that are driving and hindering development of hydrogen value chains in Norway. The study is based on a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. A multi-level perspective (MLP) is deployed to discuss how exogenous trends and uncertainties interact with processes and strategies in the national energy system and how this influences the transition potential associated with Norwegian hydrogen production. We explore different transition pathways towards a low-emission society in 2050 and find that Norwegian hydrogen production and its deployment for decarbonization of maritime and heavy-duty transport decarbonisation of industry and flexibility services may play a crucial role. Currently the development is at a branching point where national coordination is crucial to unlock the potential. The hybrid approach provides new knowledge on underlying system dynamics and contributes to the discourse on pathways in transition studies.
Simulating Offshore Hydrogen Production via PEM Electrolysis using Real Power Production Data from a 2.3 MW Floating Offshore Wind Turbine
Mar 2023
Publication
This work presents simulation results from a system where offshore wind power is used to produce hydrogen via electrolysis. Real-world data from a 2.3 MW floating offshore wind turbine and electricity price data from Nord Pool were used as input to a novel electrolyzer model. Data from five 31-day periods were combined with six system designs and hydrogen production system efficiency and production cost were estimated. A comparison of the overall system performance shows that the hydrogen production and cost can vary by up to a factor of three between the cases. This illustrates the uncertainty related to the hydrogen production and profitability of these systems. The highest hydrogen production achieved in a 31-day period was 17 242 kg using a 1.852 MW electrolyzer (i.e. utilization factor of approximately 68%) the lowest hydrogen production cost was 4.53 $/kg H2 and the system efficiency was in the range 56.1e56.9% in all cases.
Modelling of Fast Fueling of Pressurized Hydrogen Tanks for Maritime Applications
Apr 2023
Publication
This paper studies fast fueling of gaseous hydrogen into large hydrogen (H2) tanks suitable for maritime applications. Three modeling methods have been developed and evaluated: (1) Two-dimensional computational fluid dynamic (CFD) modeling (2) One-dimensional wall discretized modeling and (3) Zero-dimensional modeling. A detailed 2D CFD simulation of a small H2-tank was performed and validated with data from literature and then used to simulate a large H2-tank. Results from the 2D-model show non-uniform temperature distribution inside the large tank but not in the small H2-tank. The 1D-model can predict the mean temperature in small H2-tanks but not the inhomogeneous temperature field in large H2-tanks. The 0D-model is suitable as a screening tool to obtain rough estimates. Results from the modeling of the large H2-tank show that the heat transfer to the wall during fast filling is inhibited by heat conduction in the wall which leads to an unacceptably high mean hydrogen temperature.
Earth-Abundant Electrocatalysts in Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyzers
Dec 2018
Publication
In order to adopt water electrolyzers as a main hydrogen production system it is critical to develop inexpensive and earth-abundant catalysts. Currently both half-reactions in water splitting depend heavily on noble metal catalysts. This review discusses the proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis (WE) and the progress in replacing the noble-metal catalysts with earth-abundant ones. The efforts within this field for the discovery of efficient and stable earth-abundant catalysts (EACs) have increased exponentially the last few years. The development of EACs for the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in acidic media is particularly important as the only stable and efficient catalysts until now are noble-metal oxides such as IrOx and RuOx. On the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) side there is significant progress on EACs under acidic conditions but there are very few reports of these EACs employed in full PEM WE cells. These two main issues are reviewed and we conclude with prospects for innovation in EACs for the OER in acidic environments as well as with a critical assessment of the few full PEM WE cells assembled with EACs.
Retrofitting Towards a Greener Marine Shipping Future: Reassembling Ship Fuels and Liquefied Natural Gas in Norway
Dec 2021
Publication
The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions has entered regulatory agendas in shipping. In Norway a debate has been ongoing for over a decade about whether liquefied natural gas (LNG) ship fuel enables or impedes the transition to a greener future for shipping. This paper explores the assembling of ship fuel before and after the introduction of a controversial carbon tax on LNG. It reconstructs how changes in the regulatory apparatus prompted the reworking of natural gas into a ship fuel yet later slowed down the development of LNG in a strategy to promote alternative zero-emission fuels such as hydrogen. Following ship fuel as socio-materiality in motion we find that fossil fuels are reworked into new modes of application as part of transition policies. Natural gas continues to be enacted as an “enabler of transition” in the context of shipping given that current government policies work to support the production of hydrogen from natural gas and carbon capture and storage (CCS). New modes of accounting for emissions reassemble existing fossil fuel materiality by means of CCS and fossil-based zero-emission fuels. We examine retrofit as a particular kind of reassembling and as a prism for studying the politics of fuel and the relation between transitions and existing infrastructures.
Water Electrolysis: From Textbook Knowledge to the Latest Scientific Strategies and Industrial Developments
May 2022
Publication
Replacing fossil fuels with energy sources and carriers that are sustainable environmentally benign and affordable is amongst the most pressing challenges for future socio-economic development. To that goal hydrogen is presumed to be the most promising energy carrier. Electrocatalytic water splitting if driven by green electricity would provide hydrogen with minimal CO2 footprint. The viability of water electrolysis still hinges on the availability of durable earth-abundant electrocatalyst materials and the overall process efficiency. This review spans from the fundamentals of electrocatalytically initiated water splitting to the very latest scientific findings from university and institutional research also covering specifications and special features of the current industrial processes and those processes currently being tested in large-scale applications. Recently developed strategies are described for the optimisation and discovery of active and durable materials for electrodes that ever-increasingly harness first principles calculations and machine learning. In addition a technoeconomic analysis of water electrolysis is included that allows an assessment of the extent to which a large-scale implementation of water splitting can help to combat climate change. This review article is intended to cross-pollinate and strengthen efforts from fundamental understanding to technical implementation and to improve the ‘junctions’ between the field’s physical chemists materials scientists and engineers as well as stimulate much-needed exchange among these groups on challenges encountered in the different domains.
Climate Change Impacts of E-fuels for Aviation in Europe Under Present-day Conditions and Future Policy Scenarios
Jan 2023
Publication
‘E-fuels’ or ‘synthetic fuels’ are hydrocarbon fuels synthesized from hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) where H2 can be produced via electrolysis of water or steam reforming of natural gas and CO2 is captured from the combustion of a fossil or biogenic source or directly from the atmosphere. E-fuels are drop-in substitutes for fossil fuels but their climate change mitigation benefits are largely unclear. This study evaluates the climate change impacts of e-fuels for aviation by combining different sources of CO2 and H2 up to 2050 under two contrasting policy scenarios. The analysis includes different climate metrics and the effects of near-term climate forcers which are particularly relevant for the aviation sector. Results are produced for European average conditions and for Poland and Norway two countries with high and low emission intensity from their electricity production mix. E-fuels can either have higher or lower climate change impacts than fossil fuels depending on multiple factors such as in order of importance the electricity mix the origin of CO2 the technology for H2 production and the electrolyzer efficiency. The climate benefits are generally higher for e-fuels produced from CO2 of biogenic origin while e-fuels produced from CO2 from direct air capture or fossil fuel combustion require countries with clean electricity to outperform fossil fuels. Synthetic fuels produced from H2 derived from natural gas have higher impacts than fossil fuels even when coupled with carbon capture and storage if CO2 is sourced from fossil fuels or the atmosphere. Climate change impacts of e-fuels improve in the future and they can all achieve considerable climate change mitigation in 2050 relative to fossil jet fuel provided that strict climate policy measures are implemented to decarbonize the electricity sector. Under reduced policy efforts future climate impacts in 2050 of e-fuels from atmospheric or fossil CO2 are still higher than those of fossil jet fuels with an average European electricity mix. This study shows the conditions to maximize the climate change mitigation benefits of e-fuels which essentially depend on progressive decarbonization of the electricity sector and on reduced use of CO2 sourced from fossil fuels.
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