United States
State-of-the-Art and Research Priorities in Hydrogen Safety
Sep 2013
Publication
On October 16-17 2012 the International Association for Hydrogen Safety (HySafe) in cooperation with the Institute for Energy and Transport of the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC IET Petten) held a two-day workshop dedicated to Hydrogen Safety Research Priorities. The workshop was hosted by Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) in Berlin Germany. The main idea of the Workshop was to bring together stakeholders who can address the existing knowledge gaps in the area of the hydrogen safety including identification and prioritization of such gaps from the standpoint of scientific knowledge both experimental and theoretical including numerical. The experience highlighting these gaps which was obtained during both practical applications (industry) and risk assessment should serve as reference point for further analysis. The program included two sections: knowledge gaps as they are addressed by industry and knowledge gaps and state-of-the-art by research. In the current work the main results of the workshop are summarized and analysed.
Self-Ignition of Hydrogen Jet Fires By Electrostatic Discharge Induced By Entrained Particulates
Sep 2011
Publication
The potential for particulates entrained in hydrogen releases to generate electrostatic charge and induce electrostatic discharge ignitions was investigated. A series of tests were performed in which hydrogen was released through a 3.75-mm-diameter orifice from an initial pressure of 140 bar. Electrostatic field sensors were used to characterize the electrification of known quantities of iron oxide particulates deliberately entrained in the release. The ignition experiments focused on using charged particulates to induce spark discharges from isolated conductors and corona discharges. A total of 12 ignition events were observed. The results show that electrification of entrained particulates is a viable self-ignition mechanism of hydrogen releases.
What is an Explosion?
Sep 2013
Publication
We are going to focus our discussion on “Explosions” its definitions from a scientific regulatory and societal perspective. We will point out that as defined these definitions are not consistent and lead to ambiguity. Of particular interest to this work is how this current ambiguity affects the emerging Regulation Codes and Standards (RCS) as applied to hydrogen technologies. While this manuscript has its roots in combustion science with extension to both the standard development and regulatory communities for hazards at large the unique behavior of hydrogen in many configurations motivates examining the relevant definitions and language used in these communities. We will point out the ambiguities how this leads to confusion in supporting definitions and how it leads to overly restrictive RCS for hydrogen applications. We will then suggest terminology which is not ambiguous internally self-consistent and allows appropriate RCS to be promulgated to ensure the safety of the public and capital to ensure the correct response of first responders and allow cost effective development of hydrogen technologies in our infrastructure.
Experimental Investigation of Nozzle Aspect Ratio Effects on Under Expanded Hydrogen Jet Release Characteristics
Sep 2013
Publication
Most experimental investigations of underexpanded hydrogen jets have been limited to circular nozzles in an attempt to better understand the fundamental jet-exit flow physics and model this behaviour with pseudo source models. However realistic compressed storage leak exit geometries are not always expected to be circular. In the present study jet dispersion characteristics from rectangular slot nozzles with aspect ratios from 2 to 8 were investigated and compared with an equivalent circular nozzle. Schlieren imaging was used to observe the jet-exit shock structure while quantitative Planar Laser Rayleigh Scattering was used to measure downstream dispersion characteristics. These results provide physical insight and much needed model validation data for model development.
Pressure Cycling Of Type 1 Pressure Vessels with Gaseous Hydrogen
Sep 2011
Publication
Type 1 steel pressure vessels are commonly used for the transport of pressurized gases including gaseous hydrogen. In the majority of cases these cylinders experience relatively few pressure cycles over their lifetime perhaps in the hundreds. In emerging markets such as hydrogen-powered industrial trucks hydrogen fuel systems are expected to experience thousands of cycles over just a few year period. This study investigates the fatigue life of Type 1 steel pressure vessels by subjecting full- scale vessels to pressure cycles with gaseous hydrogen between nominal pressure of 3.5 and 43.8 MPa. In addition engineered defects were machined on the inside of several pressure vessels for comparison to fatigue crack growth measurements on materials sectioned from these pressure vessels. As-manufactured pressure vessels have sustained >35000 cycles with failure while vessels with machined defects leaked before bursting after 8000 to 15000 pressure cycles. The measured number of cycles to failure in these pressure vessels is two to three times greater than predicted using conservative methods based on fatigue crack growth rates measured in gaseous hydrogen.
Hydrogen Safety Sensor Performance and Use Gap Analysis
Sep 2017
Publication
Hydrogen sensors are recognized as an important technology for facilitating the safe implementation of hydrogen as an alternative fuel and there are numerous reports of a sensor alarm successfully preventing a potentially serious event. However gaps in sensor metrological specifications as well as in their performance for some applications exist. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Fuel Cell Technologies Office published a short list of critical gaps in the 2007 and 2012 Multiyear Project Plans; more detailed gap analyses were independently performed by the Joint Research Centre (JRC) and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). There have been however some significant advances in sensor technologies since these assessments including the commercial availability of hydrogen sensors with fast response times (t90 < 1 s which had been an elusive DOE target since 2007) improved robustness to chemical poisons improved selectivity and improved lifetime and stability. These improvements however have not been universal and typically pertain to select platforms or models. Moreover as hydrogen markets grow and new applications are being explored more demands will be imposed on sensor performance. The hydrogen sensor laboratories at NREL and the JRC are currently updating the hydrogen safety sensor gap analysis through direct interaction with international stakeholders in the hydrogen community especially end users. NREL and the JRC are currently organizing a series of workshops (in Europe and the United States) with sensor developers end-users and other stakeholders in 2017 to identify technology gaps and to develop a path forward to address them. One workshop was held on May 10 in Brussels Belgium at the Headquarters of the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking. A second workshop is planned at NREL in Golden CO USA. This paper reviews improvements in sensor technologies in the past 5 to 10 years identifies gaps in sensor performance and use requirements and identifies potential research strategies to address the gaps. The outcomes of the Hydrogen Sensors Workshops are also summarized.
Hydrogen Emergency Response Training for First Responders
Sep 2011
Publication
The U.S. Department of Energy supports the implementation of hydrogen fuel cell technologies by providing hydrogen safety and emergency response training to first responders. A collaboration was formed to develop and deliver a one-day course that uses a mobile fuel cell vehicle (FCV) burn prop designed and built by Kidde Fire Trainers. This paper describes the development of the training curriculum including the design and operation of the FCV prop; describes the successful delivery of this course to over 300 participants at three training centers in California; and discusses feedback and observations received on the course. Photographs and video clips of the training sessions will be presented.
Lessons Learned from Safety Events
Sep 2011
Publication
The Hydrogen Incident Reporting and Lessons Learned website (www.h2incidents.org) was launched in 2006 as a database-driven resource for sharing lessons learned from hydrogen-related safety events to raise safety awareness and encourage knowledge-sharing. The development of this database its first uses and subsequent enhancements have been described at the Second and Third International Conferences on Hydrogen Safety [1] [2]. Since 2009 continuing work has not only highlighted the value of safety lessons learned but enhanced how the database provides access to another safety knowledge tool Hydrogen Safety Best Practices (http://h2bestpractices.org). Collaborations with the International Energy Agency (IEA) Hydrogen Implementing Agreement (HIA) Task 19 – Hydrogen Safety and others have enabled the database to capture safety event learning’s from around the world. This paper updates recent progress highlights the new “Lessons Learned Corner” as one means for knowledge-sharing and examines the broader potential for collecting analyzing and using safety event information.
Hydrogen Monitoring Requirements in the Global Technical Regulation on Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Vehicles
Oct 2015
Publication
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Global Technical Regulation (GTR) Number 13 (Global Technical Regulation on Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Vehicles) is the defining document regulating safety requirements in hydrogen vehicles and in particular fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). GTR Number 13 has been formally adopted and will serve as the basis for the national regulatory standards for FCEV safety in North America (led by the United States) Japan Korea and the European Union. The GTR defines safety requirements for these vehicles including specifications on the allowable hydrogen levels in vehicle enclosures during in-use and post-crash conditions and on the allowable hydrogen emissions levels in vehicle exhaust during certain modes of normal operation. However in order to be incorporated into national regulations that is to be legally binding methods to verify compliance with the specific requirements must exist. In a collaborative program the Sensor Laboratories at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory in the United States and the Joint Research Centre Institute for Energy and Transport in the Netherlands have been evaluating and developing analytical methods that can be used to verify compliance with the hydrogen release requirements as specified in the GTR.
Risk Reduction Potential of Accident Prevention and Mitigation Features
Sep 2011
Publication
Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) can help to establish a set of design and operational requirements in hydrogen codes and standards that will ensure safe operation of hydrogen facilities. By analyzing a complete set of possible accidents in a QRA the risk drivers for these facilities can be identified. Accident prevention and mitigation features can then be analyzed to determine which are the most effective in addressing these risk drivers and thus reduce the risk from possible accidents. Accident prevention features/methods such as proper material selection and preventative maintenance are included in the design and operation of facilities. Accident mitigation features are included to reduce or terminate the potential consequences from unintended releases of hydrogen. Mitigation features can be either passive or active in nature. Passive features do not require any component to function in order to prevent or mitigate a hydrogen release. Examples of passive mitigation features include the use of separation distances barriers and flow limiting orifices. Active mitigation features initiate when specific conditions occur during an accident in order to terminate an accident or reduce its consequences. Examples of active mitigation features include detection and isolation systems fire suppression systems and purging systems. A concept being pursued by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) hydrogen standard development is to take credit for prevention and mitigation features as a means to reduce separation distances at hydrogen facilities. By utilizing other mitigation features the risk from accidents can be decreased and risk-informed separation distances can be reduced. This paper presents some preliminary QRA results where the risk reduction potential for several active and passive mitigation features was evaluated. These measures include automatic leak detection and isolation systems the use of flow limiting orifices and the use of barriers. Reducing the number of risk-significant components in a system was also evaluated as an accident prevention method. In addition the potential reduction in separation distances if such measures were incorporated at a facility was also determined.
Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) For Large Scale Hydrogen Systems
Sep 2017
Publication
Hydrogen has potential applications that require larger-scale storage use and handling systems than currently are employed in emerging-market fuel cell applications. These potential applications include hydrogen generation and storage systems that would support electrical grid systems. There has been extensive work evaluating regulations codes and standards (RCS) for the emerging fuel cell market such as the infrastructure required to support fuel cell electric vehicles. However there has not been a similar RCS evaluation and development process for these larger systems. This paper presents an evaluation of the existing RCS in the United States for large-scale systems and identifies potential RCS gaps. This analysis considers large-scale hydrogen technologies that are currently being employed in limited use but may be more widely used as large-scale applications expand. The paper also identifies areas of potential safety research that would need to be conducted to fill the RCS gaps. U.S. codes define bulk hydrogen storage systems but do not define large-scale systems. This paper evaluates potential applications to define a large-scale hydrogen system relative to the systems employed in emerging technologies such as hydrogen fuelling stations. These large-scale systems would likely be of similar size to or larger than industrial hydrogen systems.
Hourly Modelling of Thermal Hydrogen Electricity Markets
Jul 2020
Publication
The hourly operation of Thermal Hydrogen electricity markets is modelled. The economic values for all applicable chemical commodities are quantified (syngas ammonia methanol and oxygen) and an hourly electricity model is constructed to mimic the dispatch of key technologies: bi-directional power plants dual-fuel heating systems and plug-in fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles. The operation of key technologies determines hourly electricity prices and an optimization model adjusts the capacity to minimize electricity prices yet allow all generators to recover costs. We examine 12 cost scenarios for renewables nuclear and natural gas; the results demonstrate emissionsfree ‘energy-only’ electricity markets whose supply is largely dominated by renewables. The economic outcome is made possible in part by seizing the full supply-chain value from electrolysis (both hydrogen and oxygen) which allows an increased willingness to pay for (renewable) electricity. The wholesale electricity prices average $25–$45/ MWh or just slightly higher than the assumed levelized cost of renewable energy. This implies very competitive electricity prices particularly given the lack of need for ‘scarcity’ pricing capacity markets dedicated electricity storage or underutilized electric transmission and distribution capacity.
Ignition of Hydrogen-air Mixtures by Moving Heated Particles
Oct 2015
Publication
Studying thermal ignition mechanisms is a key step for evaluating many ignition hazards. In the present work two-dimensional simulations with detailed chemistry are used to study the reaction pathways of the transient flow and ignition of a stoichiometric hydrogen-air mixture by moving hot spheres. For temperatures above the ignition threshold ignition takes place after a short time between the front stagnation point and separation location depending upon the sphere's surface temperature. Closer to the threshold the volume of gas adjacent to the separation region ignites homogeneously after a longer time. These results demonstrate the importance of boundary layer development and flow separation in the ignition process.
Thermal Hydrogen: An Emissions Free Hydrocarbon Economy
Apr 2017
Publication
Envisioned below is an energy system named Thermal Hydrogen developed to enable economy-wide decarbonization. Thermal Hydrogen is an energy system where electric and/or heat energy is used to split water (or CO2) for the utilization of both by-products: hydrogen as energy storage and pure oxygen as carbon abatement. Important advantages of chemical energy carriers are long term energy storage and extended range for electric vehicles. These minimize the need for the most capital intensive assets of a fully decarbonized energy economy: low carbon power plants and batteries. The pure oxygen pre-empts the gas separation process of “Carbon Capture and Sequestration” (CCS) and enables hydrocarbons to use simpler more efficient thermodynamic cycles. Thus the “externality” of water splitting pure oxygen is increasingly competitive hydrocarbons which happen to be emissions free. Methods for engineering economy-wide decarbonization are described below as well as the energy supply carrier and distribution options offered by the system.
Hot Surface Ignition of Hydrogen-air Mixtures
Oct 2015
Publication
Hot surface ignition is relevant in the context of industrial safety. In the present work two-dimensional simulations with detailed chemistry and study of the reaction pathways of the buoyancy-driven flow and ignition of a stoichiometric hydrogen-air mixture by a rapidly heated surface (glowplug) are reported. Experimentally ignition is observed to occur regularly at the top of the glowplug; numerical results for hydrogen-air reproduce this trend and shed light on this behaviour. The simulations show the importance of flow separation in creating zones where convective losses are minimized and heat diffusion is maximized resulting in the critical conditions for ignition to take place.
Kinetic Model of Incipient Hydride Formation in Zr Clad under Dynamic Oxide Growth Conditions
Feb 2020
Publication
The formation of elongated zirconium hydride platelets during corrosion of nuclear fuel clad is linked to its premature failure due to embrittlement and delayed hydride cracking. Despite their importance however most existing models of hydride nucleation and growth in Zr alloys are phenomenological and lack sufficient physical detail to become predictive under the variety of conditions found in nuclear reactors during operation. Moreover most models ignore the dynamic nature of clad oxidation which requires that hydrogen transport and precipitation be considered in a scenario where the oxide layer is continuously growing at the expense of the metal substrate. In this paper we perform simulations of hydride formation in Zr clads with a moving oxide/metal boundary using a stochastic kinetic diffusion/reaction model parameterized with state-of-the-art defect and solute energetics. Our model uses the solutions of the hydrogen diffusion problem across an increasingly-coarse oxide layer to define boundary conditions for the kinetic simulations of hydrogen penetration precipitation and dissolution in the metal clad. Our method captures the spatial dependence of the problem by discretizing all spatial derivatives using a stochastic finite difference scheme. Our results include hydride number densities and size distributions along the radial coordinate of the clad for the first 1.6 h of evolution providing a quantitative picture of hydride incipient nucleation and growth under clad service conditions.
Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Stationary Applications: Key Findings of Modelling and Experimental Work in the Hyper Project
Sep 2009
Publication
Síle Brennan,
A. Bengaouer,
Marco Carcassi,
Gennaro M. Cerchiara,
Andreas Friedrich,
O. Gentilhomme,
William G. Houf,
N. Kotchourko,
Alexei Kotchourko,
Sergey Kudriakov,
Dmitry Makarov,
Vladimir V. Molkov,
Efthymia A. Papanikolaou,
C. Pitre,
Mark Royle,
R. W. Schefer,
G. Stern,
Alexandros G. Venetsanos,
Anke Veser,
Deborah Willoughby,
Jorge Yanez and
Greg H. Evans
"This paper summarises the modelling and experimental programme in the EC FP6 project HYPER. A number of key results are presented and the relevance of these findings to installation permitting guidelines (IPG) for small stationary hydrogen and fuel cell systems is discussed. A key aim of the activities was to generate new scientific data and knowledge in the field of hydrogen safety and where possible use this data as a basis to support the recommendations in the IPG. The structure of the paper mirrors that of the work programme within HYPER in that the work is described in terms of a number of relevant scenarios as follows: 1. high pressure releases 2. small foreseeable releases 3. catastrophic releases and 4. the effects of walls and barriers. Within each scenario the key objectives activities and results are discussed.<br/>The work on high pressure releases sought to provide information for informing safety distances for high-pressure components and associated fuel storage activities on both ignited and unignited jets are reported. A study on small foreseeable releases which could potentially be controlled through forced or natural ventilation is described. The aim of the study was to determine the ventilation requirements in enclosures containing fuel cells such that in the event of a foreseeable leak the concentration of hydrogen in air for zone 2 ATEX is not exceeded. The hazard potential of a possibly catastrophic hydrogen leakage inside a fuel cell cabinet was investigated using a generic fuel cell enclosure model. The rupture of the hydrogen feed line inside the enclosure was considered and both dispersion and combustion of the resulting hydrogen air mixture were examined for a range of leak rates and blockage ratios. Key findings of this study are presented. Finally the scenario on walls and barriers is discussed; a mitigation strategy to potentially reduce the exposure to jet flames is to incorporate barriers around hydrogen storage equipment. Conclusions of experimental and modelling work which aim to provide guidance on configuration and placement of these walls to minimise overall hazards is presented. "
Compatibility and Suitability of Existing Steel Pipelines for Transport of Hydrogen and Hydrogen-natural Gas Blends
Sep 2017
Publication
Hydrogen is being considered as a pathway to decarbonize large energy systems and for utility-scale energy storage. As these applications grow transportation infrastructure that can accommodate large quantities of hydrogen will be needed. Many millions of tons of hydrogen are already consumed annually some of which is transported in dedicated hydrogen pipelines. The materials and operation of these hydrogen pipeline systems however are managed with more constraints than a conventional natural gas pipeline. Transitional strategies for deep decarbonization of energy systems include blending hydrogen into existing natural gas systems where the materials and operations may not have the same controls. This study explores the hydrogen compatibility of existing pipeline steels and the suitability of these steels in hydrogen pipeline systems. Representative fracture and fatigue properties of pipeline grade steels in gaseous hydrogen are summarized from the literature. These properties are then considered in idealized design life calculations to inform materials performance for a typical gas pipeline.
Design of an Efficient, High Purity Hydrogen Generation Apparatus and Method for a Sustainable, Closed Clean Energy Cycle
Jul 2015
Publication
In this paper we present a detailed design study of a novel apparatus for safely generating hydrogen (H2) on demand according to a novel method using a controlled chemical reaction between water (H2O) and sodium (Na) metal that yields hydrogen gas of sufficient purity for direct use in fuel cells without risk of contaminating sensitive catalysts. The apparatus consists of a first pressure vessel filled with liquid H2O with an overpressure of nitrogen (N2) gas above the H2O reactant and a second pressure vessel that stores solid Na reactant. Hydrogen gas is generated above the solid Na when H2O reactant is introduced using a regulator that senses when the downstream pressure of H2 gas above the solid Na reactant has dropped below a threshold value. The sodium hydroxide (NaOH) byproduct of the hydrogen producing reaction is collected within the apparatus for later reprocessing by electrolysis to recover the Na reactant.
QRA Including Utility for Decision Support of H2 Infrastructure Licensing
Sep 2011
Publication
Rational decision making in land use planning and licensing of H2 infrastructure surrounded by other industrial activities and population should take account of individual and societal risks. QRA produces a risk matrix of potential consequences versus event probabilities that is shrouded in ambiguity and lacking transparency. NIMBY and conflict are lurking. To counter these issues risk analysts should therefore also determine the utilities of decision alternatives which describe desirability of benefits on a single scale. Rationally weighing risks versus benefits results in more transparent and defendable decisions. Example risk analyses of two types of refuelling stations and three hydrogen supply transportation types applying Influence Diagram/BBNs are worked out. Keywords: risk assessment influence diagram decision making land use planning
Safety Considerations for Hydrogen Test Cells
Sep 2009
Publication
The properties of hydrogen compared to conventional fuels such as gasoline and diesel are substantially different requiring adaptations to the design and layout of test cells for hydrogen fuelled engines and vehicles. A comparison of hydrogen fuel properties versus conventional fuels in this paper provides identification of requirements that need to be adapted to design a safe test cell. Design examples of actual test cells are provided to showcase the differences in overall layout and ventilation safety features fuel supply and metering and emissions measurements. Details include requirements for ventilation patterns the necessity for engine fume hoods as well as hydrogen specific intake and exhaust design. The unique properties of hydrogen in particular the wide flammability limits and nonvisible flames also require additional safety features such as hydrogen sensors and flame cameras. A properly designed and implemented fuel supply system adds to the safety of the test cell by minimizing the amount of hydrogen that can be released. Apart from this the properties of hydrogen also require different fuel consumption measurement systems pressure levels of the fuel supply system additional ventilation lines strategically placed safety solenoids combined with appropriate operational procedures. The emissions measurement for hydrogen application has to be expanded to include the amount of unburned hydrogen in the exhaust as a measurement of completeness of combustion. This measurement can also be used as a safety feature to avoid creation of ignitable hydrogen-air mixtures in the engine exhaust. The considerations provided in this paper lead to the conclusion that hydrogen IC engines can be safely tested however properly designed test cell and safety features have to be included to mitigate the additional hazards related to the change in fuel characteristics.
H-Mat Hydrogen Compatibility of Polymers and Elastomers
Sep 2019
Publication
The H2@Scale program of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Fuel Cell Technologies Office is supporting work on the hydrogen compatibility of polymers to improve the durability and reliability of materials for hydrogen infrastructure. The hydrogen compatibility program (H-Mat) seeks “to address the challenges of hydrogen degradation by elucidating the mechanisms of hydrogen-materials interactions with the goal of providing science-based strategies to design materials (micro)structures and morphology with improved resistance to hydrogen degradation.” This research has found hydrogen and pressure interactions with model rubber-material compounds demonstrating volume change and compression-set differences in the materials. The research leverages state-of-the-art capabilities of the DOE national labs. The materials were investigated using helium-ion microscopy which revealed significant morphological changes in the plasticizer incorporating compounds after exposure as evidenced by time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry. Additional studies using transmission electron microscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance revealed that nanosized inclusions developed after gas decompression in rubber- and plasticizer-only materials; this is an indication of void formation at the nanometer level.
Deploying Fuel Cell Systems, What Have We Learned
Sep 2013
Publication
The Hydrogen Safety Panel brings a broad cross-section of expertise from the industrial government and academic sectors to help advise the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Fuel Cell Technologies Office through its work in hydrogen safety codes and standards. The Panel's initiatives in reviewing safety plans conducting safety evaluations identifying safety-related technical data gaps and supporting safety knowledge tools and databases cover the gamut from research and development to demonstration. The Panel's recent work has focused on the safe deployment of hydrogen and fuel cell systems in support of DOE efforts to accelerate fuel cell commercialization in early market applications: vehicle refuelling material handling equipment backup power for warehouses and telecommunication sites and portable power devices. This paper summarizes the work and learnings from the Panel's early efforts the transition to its current focus and the outcomes and conclusions from recent work on the deployment of hydrogen and fuel cell systems.
Hydrogen Strategy - Enabling a Low-Carbon Economy
Jul 2020
Publication
This document summarizes current hydrogen technologies and communicates the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Fossil Energy's (FE's) strategic plan to accelerate research development and deploymnet of hydrogen technologies in the United States. It also describes ongoing FE hydrogen-related research and development (R&D). Hydrogen from fossil fuels is a versatile energy carrier and can play an important role in the transition to a low-carbon economy.
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): The Way Forward
Mar 2018
Publication
Mai Bui,
Claire S. Adjiman,
André Bardow,
Edward J. Anthony,
Andy Boston,
Solomon Brown,
Paul Fennell,
Sabine Fuss,
Amparo Galindo,
Leigh A. Hackett,
Jason P. Hallett,
Howard J. Herzog,
George Jackson,
Jasmin Kemper,
Samuel Krevor,
Geoffrey C. Maitland,
Michael Matuszewski,
Ian Metcalfe,
Camille Petit,
Graeme Puxty,
Jeffrey Reimer,
David M. Reiner,
Edward S. Rubin,
Stuart A. Scott,
Nilay Shah,
Berend Smit,
J. P. Martin Trusler,
Paul Webley,
Jennifer Wilcox and
Niall Mac Dowell
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is broadly recognised as having the potential to play a key role in meeting climate change targets delivering low carbon heat and power decarbonising industry and more recently its ability to facilitate the net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere. However despite this broad consensus and its technical maturity CCS has not yet been deployed on a scale commensurate with the ambitions articulated a decade ago. Thus in this paper we review the current state-of-the-art of CO2 capture transport utilisation and storage from a multi-scale perspective moving from the global to molecular scales. In light of the COP21 commitments to limit warming to less than 2 °C we extend the remit of this study to include the key negative emissions technologies (NETs) of bioenergy with CCS (BECCS) and direct air capture (DAC). Cognisant of the non-technical barriers to deploying CCS we reflect on recent experience from the UK's CCS commercialisation programme and consider the commercial and political barriers to the large-scale deployment of CCS. In all areas we focus on identifying and clearly articulating the key research challenges that could usefully be addressed in the coming decade.
Fatigue and Fracture of High-hardenability Steels for Thick-walled Hydrogen Pressure Vessels
Sep 2017
Publication
Stationary pressure vessels for the storage of large volumes of gaseous hydrogen at high pressure (>70 MPa) are typically manufactured from Cr-Mo steels. These steels display hydrogen-enhanced fatigue crack growth but pressure vessels can be manufactured using defect-tolerant design methodologies. However storage volumes are limited by the wall thickness that can be reliably manufactured for quench and tempered Cr-Mo steels typically not more than 25-35 mm. High-hardenability steels can be manufactured with thicker walls which enables larger diameter pressure vessels and larger storage volumes. The goal of this study is to assess the fracture and fatigue response of high hardenability Ni-Cr-Mo pressure vessel steels for use in high-pressure hydrogen service at pressure in excess of 1000 bar. Standardized fatigue crack growth tests were performed in gaseous hydrogen at frequency of 1Hz and for R-ratios in the range of 0.1 to 0.7. Elastic-plastic fracture toughness measurements were also performed. The measured fatigue and fracture behavior is placed into the context of previous studies on fatigue and fracture of Cr-Mo steels for gaseous hydrogen.
Dispersion and Burning Behavior of Hydrogen Released in a Full-scale Residential Garage in the Presence and Absence of Conventional Automobiles
Sep 2011
Publication
Experiments are described in which hydrogen was released at the center of the floor of a real-scale enclosure having dimensions of a typical two-car residential garage. Real-time hydrogen concentrations were monitored at a number of locations. The hydrogen/air mixtures were ignited at pre-determined local volume fractions ranging from 8% to 29%. The combustion behavior and structural effects were monitored using combinations of high-speed pressure transducers and ionization gauges standard thermocouples hydrogen sensors and digital infrared and high-speed video cameras. Experiments were performed both for empty garages and garages with conventional automobiles parked above the hydrogen release location.
Regulations, Codes, and Standards (RCS) for Multi-fuel Motor Vehicle Dispensing Station
Sep 2017
Publication
In the United States requirements for liquid motor vehicle fuelling stations have been in place for many years. Requirements for motor vehicle fuelling stations for gaseous fuels including hydrogen are relatively new. These requirements have in the United States been developed along different code and standards paths. The liquid fuels have been addressed in a single document and the gaseous fuels have been addressed in documents specific to an individual gas. The result of these parallel processes is that multi-fuel stations are subject to requirements in several fuelling regulations codes and standards (RCS). This paper describes a configuration of a multi-fuel motor vehicle fuelling station and provides a detailed breakdown of the codes and standards requirements. The multi-fuel station would dispense what the U.S. Department of Energy defines as the six key alternative fuels: biodiesel electricity ethanol hydrogen natural gas and propane. The paper will also identify any apparent gaps in RCS and potential research projects that could help fill these gaps.
The Technical and Economic Potential of the H2@Scale Concept within the United States
Oct 2020
Publication
The U.S. energy system is evolving as society and technologies change. Renewable electricity generation—especially from wind and solar—is growing rapidly and alternative energy sources are being developed and implemented across the residential commercial transportation and industrial sectors to take advantage of their cost security and health benefits. Systemic changes present numerous challenges to grid resiliency and energy affordability creating a need for synergistic solutions that satisfy multiple applications while yielding system-wide cost and emissions benefits. One such solution is an integrated hydrogen energy system (Figure ES-1). This is the focus of H2@Scale—a U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) initiative led by the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy’s Hydrogen and Fuel Technologies Office. H2@Scale brings together stakeholders to advance affordable hydrogen production transport storage and utilization in multiple energy sectors. The H2@Scale concept involves hydrogen as an energy intermediate. Hydrogen can be produced from various conventional and renewable energy sources including as a responsive load on the electric grid. Hydrogen has many current applications and many more potential applications such as energy for transportation—used directly in fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) as a feedstock for synthetic fuels and to upgrade oil and biomass—feedstock for industry (e.g. for ammonia production metals refining and other end uses) heat for industry and buildings and electricity storage. Owing to its flexibility and fungibility a hydrogen intermediate could link energy sources that have surplus availability to markets that require energy or chemical feedstocks benefiting both. This document builds upon a growing body of analyses of hydrogen as an energy intermediate by reporting the results from our initial analysis of the potential impacts of the H2@Scale vision by the mid-21st century for the 48 contiguous U.S. states. Previous estimates have been based on expert elicitation and focused on hydrogen demands. We build upon them first by estimating hydrogen’s serviceable consumption potential for possible hydrogen applications and the technical potential for producing hydrogen from various resources. We define the serviceable consumption potential as the quantity of hydrogen that would be consumed to serve the portion of the market that could be captured without considering economics (i.e. if the price of hydrogen were $0/kg over an extended period); thus it can be considered an upper bound for the size of the market. We define the technical potential as the resource potential constrained by real-world geography and system performance but not by economics. We then compare the cumulative serviceable consumption potential with the technical potential of a number of possible sources. Second we estimate economic potential: the quantity of hydrogen at an equilibrium price at which suppliers are willing to sell and consumers are willing to buy the same quantity of hydrogen. We believe this method provides a deeper understanding than was available in the previous analyses. We develop economic potentials for multiple scenarios across various market and technology-advancement assumptions.
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: So, What's the Big Deal with Hydrogen?
Aug 2019
Publication
This episode is a whistle-stop tour of the hydrogen world. The team explore why hydrogen is making a resurgence as an energy carrier how decarbonising the existing hydrogen market is a huge opportunity and how fuel cells fit into the story.
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
Development of Dispensing Hardware for Safe Fueling of Heavy Duty Vehicles
Sep 2021
Publication
The development of safe dispensing equipment for the fueling of heavy duty (HD) vehicles is critical to the expansion of this newly and quickly expanding market. This paper discusses the development of a HD dispenser and nozzles assembly (nozzle hose breakaway) for these new larger vehicles where flow rates are more than double compared to light duty (LD) vehicles. This equipment must operate at nominal pressures of 700 bar -40o C gas temperature and average flow rate of 5-10 kg/min at a high throughput commercial hydrogen fueling station without leaking hydrogen. The project surveyed HD vehicle manufacturers station developers and component suppliers to determine the basic specifications of the dispensing equipment and nozzle assembly. The team also examined existing codes and standards to determine necessary changes to accommodate HD components. From this information the team developed a set of specifications which will be used to design the dispensing equipment. In order to meet these goals the team performed computational fluid dynamic pressure modelling and temperature analysis in order to determine the necessary parameters to meet existing safety standards modified for HD fueling. The team also considered user operational and maintenance requirements such as freeze lock which has been an issue which prevents the removal of the nozzle from LD vehicles. The team also performed a failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) to identify the possible failures in the design. The dispenser and nozzle assembly will be tested separately and then installed on an innovative HD fueling station which will use a HD vehicle simulator to test the entire system.
A Review of the Status of Fossil and Renewable Energies in Southeast Asia and Its Implications on the Decarbonization of ASEAN
Mar 2022
Publication
The ten nations of Southeast Asia collectively known as ASEAN emitted 1.65 Gtpa CO2 in 2020 and are among the most vulnerable nations to climate change which is partially caused by anthropogenic CO2 emission. This paper analyzes the history of ASEAN energy consumption and CO2 emission from both fossil and renewable energies in the last two decades. The results show that ASEAN’s renewable energies resources range from low to moderate are unevenly distributed geographically and contributed to only 20% of total primary energy consumption (TPEC) in 2015. The dominant forms of renewable energies are hydropower solar photovoltaic and bioenergy. However both hydropower and bioenergy have substantial sustainability issues. Fossil energies depend heavily on coal and oil and contribute to 80% of TPEC. More importantly renewable energies’ contribution to TPEC has been decreasing in the last two decades despite the increasing installation capacity. This suggests that the current rate of the addition of renewable energy capacity is inadequate to allow ASEAN to reach net-zero by 2050. Therefore fossil energies will continue to be an important part of ASEAN’s energy mix. More tools such as carbon capture and storage (CCS) and hydrogen will be needed for decarbonization. CCS will be needed to decarbonize ASEAN’s fossil power and industrial plants while blue hydrogen will be needed to decarbonize hard-to-decarbonize industrial plants. Based on recent research into regional CO2 source-sink mapping this paper proposes six large-scale CCS projects in four countries which can mitigate up to 300 Mtpa CO2 . Furthermore this paper identifies common pathways for ASEAN decarbonization and their policy implications.
Effective Thermal Conductivity of Insulation Materials for Cryogenic LH2 Storage Tanks: A Review
Nov 2022
Publication
An accurate estimation of the effective thermal conductivity of various insulation materials is essential in the evaluation of heat leak and boil-off rate from liquid hydrogen storage tanks. In this work we review the existing experimental data and various proposed correlations for predicting the effective conductivity of insulation systems consisting of powders foams fibrous materials and multilayer systems. We also propose a first principles-based correlation that may be used to estimate the dependence of the effective conductivity as a function of temperature interstitial gas composition pressure and structural properties of the material. We validate the proposed correlation using available experimental data for some common insulation materials. Further improvements and testing of the proposed correlation using laboratory scale data obtained using potential LH2 tank insulation materials are also discussed.
Green-hydrogen Research: What Have We Achieved, and Where Are We Going? Bibliometrics Analysis
Jul 2022
Publication
In response to the global challenge of climate change 136 countries accounting for 90% of global GDP and 85% of the population have now set net-zero targets. A transition to net-zero will require the decarbonization of all sectors of the economy. Green-hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources poses little to no threat to the environment and increasing its production will support net-zero targets Our study examined the evolution of green-hydrogen research themes since the UN Sustainable Development Goals were adopted in 2015 by utilizing bibliographic couplings keyword co-occurrence and keyphrase analysis of 642 articles from 2016 to 2021 in the Scopus database. We studied bibliometrics indicators and temporal evolution of publications and citations patterns of open access the effect of author collaboration influential publications and top contributing countries. We also consider new indicators like publication views keyphrases topics with prominence and field weighted citation impact and Altmetrics to understand the research direction further. We find four major thematic distributions of green-hydrogen research based on keyword co-occurrence networks: hydrogen storage hydrogen production electrolysis and the hydrogen economy. We also find networks of four research clusters that provide new information on the journal’s contributions to green-hydrogen research. These are materials chemistry hydrogen energy and cleaner production applied energy and fuel cells. Most green-hydrogen research aligns with Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG 7) and Climate Action (SDG 13). The outcomes of policy decisions in the United States Europe India and China will profoundly impact green-hydrogen production and storage over the next five years. If these policies are implemented these countries will account for two-thirds of this growth. Asia will account for the most significant part and become the second-largest producer globally.
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: Moving at the Speed of Hydrogen
Nov 2020
Publication
We spend a lot of time on the show talking about the interesting use cases and potential applications of hydrogen technologies as a means to decarbonize high-emissions sectors and that is the point! However moving hydrogen around the world (e.g. to remote areas without the capacity to produce it locally) presents a number of complexities and challenges that are unique to hydrogen itself or for which there are no traditionally established technologies to do so. On this episode the EAH team has a fascinating chat with Dr. Daniel Teichmann CEO and founder of Hydrogenious to learn more about liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) and how they can help companies overcome some of the major hurdles that moving hydrogen around the globe presents.
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
Techno-Economic Analysis of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell-Gas Turbine Hybrid Systems for Stationary Power Applications Using Renewable Hydrogen
Jun 2023
Publication
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)–gas turbine (GT) hybrid systems can produce power at high electrical efficiencies while emitting virtually zero criteria pollutants (e.g. ozone carbon monoxide oxides of nitrogen and sulfur and particulate matters). This study presents new insights into renewable hydrogen (RH2 )-powered SOFC–GT hybrid systems with respect to their system configuration and techno-economic analysis motivated by the need for clean on-demand power. First three system configurations are thermodynamically assessed: (I) a reference case with no SOFC off-gas recirculation (II) a case with cathode off-gas recirculation and (III) a case with anode off-gas recirculation. While these configurations have been studied in isolation here we provide a detailed performance comparison. Moreover a techno-economic analysis is conducted to study the economic competitiveness of RH2 -fueled hybrid systems and the economies of scale by offering a comparison to natural gas (NG)-fueled systems. Results show that the case with anode off-gas recirculation with 68.50%-lower heating value (LHV) at a 10 MW scale has the highest efficiency among the studied scenarios. When moving from 10 MW to 50 MW the efficiency increases to 70.22%-LHV. These high efficiency values make SOFC–GT hybrid systems highly attractive in the context of a circular economy as they outcompete most other power generation technologies. The cost-of-electricity (COE) is reduced by about 10% when moving from 10 MW to 50 MW from USD 1976/kW to USD 1668/kW respectively. Renewable H2 is expected to be economically competitive with NG by 2030 when the U.S. Department of Energy’s target of USD 1/kg RH2 is reached.
Transition to Renewable Energy for Communities: Energy Storage Requirements and Dissipation
Aug 2022
Publication
The transition of residential communities to renewable energy sources is one of the first steps for the decarbonization of the energy sector the reduction of CO2 emissions and the mitigation of global climate change. This study provides information for the development of a microgrid supplied by wind and solar energy which meets the hourly energy demand of a community of 10000 houses in the North Texas region; hydrogen is used as the energy storage medium. The results are presented for two cases: (a) when the renewable energy sources supply only the electricity demand of the community and (b) when these sources provide the electricity as well as the heating needs (for space heating and hot water) of the community. The results show that such a community can be decarbonized with combinations of wind and solar installations. The energy storage requirements are between 2.7 m3 per household and 2.2 m3 per household. There is significant dissipation in the storage–regeneration processes—close to 30% of the current annual electricity demand. The entire decarbonization (electricity and heat) of this community will result in approximately 87500 tons of CO2 emissions avoidance.
Residential Fuel Transition and Fuel Interchangeability in Current Self-Aspirating Combustion Applications: Historical Development and Future Expectations
May 2022
Publication
To reduce greenhouse gases and air pollutants new technologies are emerging to reduce fossil fuel usage and to adopt more renewable energy sources. As the major aspects of fuel consumption power generation transportation and industrial applications have been given significant attention. The past few decades witnessed astonishing technological advancement in these energy sectors. In contrast the residential sector has had relatively little attention despite its significant utilization of fuels for a much longer period. However almost every energy transition in human history was initiated by the residential sector. For example the transition from fuelwood to cheap coal in the 1700s first took place in residential houses due to urbanization and industrialization. The present review demonstrates the energy transitions in the residential sector during the past two centuries while portending an upcoming energy transition and future energy structure for the residential sector. The feasibility of the 100% electrification of residential buildings is discussed based on current residential appliance adoption and the analysis indicates a hybrid residential energy structure is preferred over depending on a single energy source. Technical considerations and suggestions are given to help incorporate more renewable energy into the residential fuel supply system. Finally it is observed that compared to the numerous regulations on large energy-consumption aspects standards for residential appliances are scarce. Therefore it is concluded that establishing appropriate testing methods is a critical enabling step to facilitate the adoption of renewable fuels in future appliances.
Recent Developments in State-of-the-art Hydrogen Energy Technologies – Review of Hydrogen Storage Materials
Jan 2023
Publication
Hydrogen energy has been assessed as a clean and renewable energy source for future energy demand. For harnessing hydrogen energy to its fullest potential storage is a key parameter. It is well known that important hydrogen storage characteristics are operating pressure-temperature of hydrogen hydrogen storage capacity hydrogen absorption-desorption kinetics and heat transfer in the hydride bed. Each application needs specific properties. Every class of hydrogen storage materials has a different set of hydrogenation characteristics. Hence it is required to understand the properties of all hydrogen storage materials. The present review is focused on the state-of– the–art hydrogen storage materials including metal hydrides magnesium-based materials complex hydride systems carbonaceous materials metal organic frameworks perovskites and materials and processes based on artificial intelligence. In each category of materials‘ discovery hydrogen storage mechanism and reaction crystal structure and recent progress have been discussed in detail. Together with the fundamental synthesis process latest techniques of material tailoring like nanostructuring nanoconfinement catalyzing alloying and functionalization have also been discussed. Hydrogen energy research has a promising potential to replace fossil fuels from energy uses especially from automobile sector. In this context efforts initiated worldwide for clean hydrogen production and its use via fuel cell in vehicles is much awaiting steps towards sustainable energy demand.
A Flexible Techno-economic Analysis Tool for Regional Hydrogen Hubs - A Case Study for Ireland
Apr 2023
Publication
The increasing urgency with which climate change must be addressed has led to an unprecedented level of interest in hydrogen as a clean energy carrier. Much of the analysis of hydrogen until this point has focused predominantly on hydrogen production. This paper aims to address this by developing a flexible techno-economic analysis (TEA) tool that can be used to evaluate the potential of future scenarios where hydrogen is produced stored and distributed within a region. The tool takes a full year of hourly data for renewables availability and dispatch down (the sum of curtailment and constraint) wholesale electricity market prices and hydrogen demand as well as other user-defined inputs and sizes electrolyser capacity in order to minimise cost. The model is applied to a number of case studies on the island of Ireland which includes Ireland and Northern Ireland. For the scenarios analysed the overall LCOH ranges from V2.75e3.95/kgH2. Higher costs for scenarios without access to geological storage indicate the importance of cost-effective storage to allow flexible hydrogen production to reduce electricity costs whilst consistently meeting a set demand.
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: Easter Eggs
Feb 2023
Publication
On today’s episode of Everything About Hydrogen we speak with Raffi Garabedian CEO and Co-Founder of Electric Hydrogen (EH2) a deep decarbonization company pioneering new technology for low cost high efficiency fossil free hydrogen systems. By using electrolyzers many times larger than the industry standard EH2 aims to help eliminate more than 30% of global GHG emissions from difficult to electrify sectors like steel ammonia and freight.
We are excited to learn more from Raffi about the EH2 technology lessons learned by scaling First Solar and what we might expect to see next.
The podcast can be found on their website.
We are excited to learn more from Raffi about the EH2 technology lessons learned by scaling First Solar and what we might expect to see next.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Quaternary Hydrides Pd1-y-zAgyCuzHx Embedded Atom Method Potentials for Hydrogen Energy Applications
Jan 2021
Publication
The Pd-H system has attracted extensive attention. Pd can absorb considerable amount of H at room temperature this ability is reversible so it is suitable for multiple energy applications. Pd-Ag alloys possess higher H permeability solubility and narrower miscibility gap with better mechanical properties than pure Pd but sulfur poisoning remains an issue. Pd-Cu alloys have excellent resistance to sulfur and carbon monoxide poisoning and hydrogen embrittlement good mechanical properties and broader temperature working environments over pure Pd but relatively lower hydrogen permeability and solubility than pure Pd and Pd-Ag alloys. This suggests that alloying Pd with Ag and Cu to create Pd-Ag-Cu ternary alloys can optimize the overall performance and substantially lowers the cost. Thus in this paper we provide the first embedded atom method potentials for the quaternary hydrides Pd1-y-zAgyCuzHx. The fully analytical potentials are fitted utilizing the central atom method without performing time-consuming molecular dynamics simulations.
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: What's Brewing in the UK Clean Hydrogen Sector?
Dec 2021
Publication
Chris Jackson is the Founder and CEO of Protium Green Solutions based in London. Protium is a hydrogen energy services company that designs develops finances owns and operates clean hydrogen solutions for clients to achieve net zero energy emissions at their industrial/manufacturing sites. Chris will talk to us about the Protium story and also give us some insight into a major project that Protium recently announced in conjunction Budweiser Brewing Group UK&Ireland to explore the deployment of zero emission green hydrogen at Magor brewery in South Wales one of the largest breweries in the UK. To that end in order to get the full story about this project we are delighted to say that we have yet another great guest on this episode. Tom Brewer who leads Global Environmental Sustainability efforts at AB InBev the parent company of Budweiser Brewing Group will join us for the final segment of the show to talk about how hydrogen fits into AB InBev’s vision of a sustainable future for the company.
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
Everything About Hydrogen Podcast: Hydrogen, Net Zero and Circularity a Perfect Syzygy!
Jul 2020
Publication
On this week's show we speak with Trevor Best CEO of Syzygy Plasmonics a Houston area startup who is a pioneer in the field of photocatalytic based hydrogen production. The company has recently closed its series A funding round. We discuss with Trevor the potential applications of the Syzygy approach and where they are aiming to engage the market first as well as his view of the evolution of the hydrogen market today. All this and more on the show!
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
Materials for Hydrogen-based Energy Storage - Past, Recent Progress and Future Outlook
Dec 2019
Publication
Michael Hirscher,
Volodymyr A. Yartys,
Marcello Baricco,
José Bellosta von Colbe,
Didier Blanchard,
Robert C. Bowman Jr.,
Darren P. Broom,
Craig Buckley,
Fei Chang,
Ping Chen,
Young Whan Cho,
Jean-Claude Crivello,
Fermin Cuevas,
William I. F. David,
Petra E. de Jongh,
Roman V. Denys,
Martin Dornheim,
Michael Felderhoff,
Yaroslav Filinchuk,
George E. Froudakis,
David M. Grant,
Evan MacA. Gray,
Bjørn Christian Hauback,
Teng He,
Terry D. Humphries,
Torben R. Jensen,
Sangryun Kim,
Yoshitsugu Kojima,
Michel Latroche,
Hai-wen Li,
Mykhaylo V. Lototskyy,
Joshua W. Makepeace,
Kasper T. Møller,
Lubna Naheed,
Peter Ngene,
Dag Noreus,
Magnus Moe Nygård,
Shin-ichi Orimo,
Mark Paskevicius,
Luca Pasquini,
Dorthe B. Ravnsbæk,
M. Veronica Sofianos,
Terrence J. Udovic,
Tejs Vegge,
Gavin Walker,
Colin Webb,
Claudia Weidenthaler and
Claudia Zlotea
Globally the accelerating use of renewable energy sources enabled by increased efficiencies and reduced costs and driven by the need to mitigate the effects of climate change has significantly increased research in the areas of renewable energy production storage distribution and end-use. Central to this discussion is the use of hydrogen as a clean efficient energy vector for energy storage. This review by experts of Task 32 “Hydrogen-based Energy Storage” of the International Energy Agency Hydrogen TCP reports on the development over the last 6 years of hydrogen storage materials methods and techniques including electrochemical and thermal storage systems. An overview is given on the background to the various methods the current state of development and the future prospects. The following areas are covered; porous materials liquid hydrogen carriers complex hydrides intermetallic hydrides electro-chemical storage of energy thermal energy storage hydrogen energy systems and an outlook is presented for future prospects and research on hydrogen-based energy storage
Decarbonization of Australia’s Energy System: Integrated Modelling of the Transformation of Electricity, Transportation, and Industrial Sectors
Jul 2020
Publication
To achieve the Paris Agreement’s long-term temperature goal current energy systems must be transformed. Australia represents an interesting case for energy system transformation modelling: with a power system dominated by fossil fuels and specifically with a heavy coal component there is at the same time a vast potential for expansion and use of renewables. We used the multi-sectoral Australian Energy Modelling System (AUSeMOSYS) to perform an integrated analysis of implications for the electricity transport and selected industry sectors to the mid-century. The state-level resolution allows representation of regional discrepancies in renewable supply and the quantification of inter-regional grid extensions necessary for the physical integration of variable renewables. We investigated the impacts of different CO2 budgets and selected key factors on energy system transformation. Results indicate that coal-fired generation has to be phased out completely by 2030 and a fully renewable electricity supply achieved in the 2030s according to the cost-optimal pathway implied by the 1.5 °C Paris Agreement-compatible carbon budget. Wind and solar PV can play a dominant role in decarbonizing Australia’s energy system with continuous growth of demand due to the strong electrification of linked energy sectors.
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles; Current Status and Future Prospect
Jun 2019
Publication
The hazardous effects of pollutants from conventional fuel vehicles have caused the scientific world to move towards environmentally friendly energy sources. Though we have various renewable energy sources the perfect one to use as an energy source for vehicles is hydrogen. Like electricity hydrogen is an energy carrier that has the ability to deliver incredible amounts of energy. Onboard hydrogen storage in vehicles is an important factor that should be considered when designing fuel cell vehicles. In this study a recent development in hydrogen fuel cell engines is reviewed to scrutinize the feasibility of using hydrogen as a major fuel in transportation systems. A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that can produce electricity by allowing chemical gases and oxidants as reactants. With anodes and electrolytes the fuel cell splits the cation and the anion in the reactant to produce electricity. Fuel cells use reactants which are not harmful to the environment and produce water as a product of the chemical reaction. As hydrogen is one of the most efficient energy carriers the fuel cell can produce direct current (DC) power to run the electric car. By integrating a hydrogen fuel cell with batteries and the control system with strategies one can produce a sustainable hybrid car
Technologies and Policies to Decarbonize Global Industry: Review and Assessment of Mitigation Drivers Through 2070
Mar 2020
Publication
Jeffrey Rissman,
Chris Bataille,
Eric Masanet,
Nate Aden,
William R. Morrow III,
Nan Zhou,
Neal Elliott,
Rebecca Dell,
Niko Heeren,
Brigitta Huckestein,
Joe Cresko,
Sabbie A. Miller,
Joyashree Roy,
Paul Fennell,
Betty Cremmins,
Thomas Koch Blank,
David Hone,
Ellen D. Williams,
Stephane de la Rue du Can,
Bill Sisson,
Mike Williams,
John Katzenberger,
Dallas Burtraw,
Girish Sethi,
He Ping,
David Danielson,
Hongyou Lu,
Tom Lorber,
Jens Dinkel and
Jonas Helseth
Fully decarbonizing global industry is essential to achieving climate stabilization and reaching net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050–2070 is necessary to limit global warming to 2 °C. This paper assembles and evaluates technical and policy interventions both on the supply side and on the demand side. It identifies measures that employed together can achieve net zero industrial emissions in the required timeframe. Key supply-side technologies include energy efficiency (especially at the system level) carbon capture electrification and zero-carbon hydrogen as a heat source and chemical feedstock. There are also promising technologies specific to each of the three top-emitting industries: cement iron & steel and chemicals & plastics. These include cement admixtures and alternative chemistries several technological routes for zero-carbon steelmaking and novel chemical catalysts and separation technologies. Crucial demand-side approaches include material-efficient design reductions in material waste substituting low-carbon for high-carbon materials and circular economy interventions (such as improving product longevity reusability ease of refurbishment and recyclability). Strategic well-designed policy can accelerate innovation and provide incentives for technology deployment. High-value policies include carbon pricing with border adjustments or other price signals; robust government support for research development and deployment; and energy efficiency or emissions standards. These core policies should be supported by labeling and government procurement of low-carbon products data collection and disclosure requirements and recycling incentives. In implementing these policies care must be taken to ensure a just transition for displaced workers and affected communities. Similarly decarbonization must complement the human and economic development of low- and middle-income countries.
Using Additives to Control the Decomposition Temperature of Sodium Borohydride
May 2020
Publication
Hydrogen (H2) shows great promise as zero-carbon emission fuel but there are several challenges to overcome in regards to storage and transportation to make it a more universal energy solution. Gaseous hydrogen requires high pressures and large volume tanks while storage of liquid hydrogen requires cryogenic temperatures; neither option is ideal due to cost and the hazards involved. Storage in the solid state presents an attractive alternative and can meet the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) constraints to find materials containing > 7 % H2 (gravimetric weight) with a maximum H2 release under 125 °C.
While there are many candidate hydrogen storage materials the vast majority are metal hydrides. Of the hydrides this review focuses solely on sodium borohydride (NaBH4) which is often not covered in other hydride reviews. However as it contains 10.6% (by weight) H2 that can release at 133 ± 3 JK−1mol−1 this inexpensive material has received renewed attention. NaBH4 should decompose to H2g) Na(s) and B(s) and could be recycled into its original form. Unfortunately metal to ligand charge transfer in NaBH4 induces high thermodynamic stability creating a high decomposition temperature of 530 °C. In an effort make H2 more accessible at lower temperatures researchers have incorporated additives to destabilize the structure.
This review highlights metal additives that have successfully reduced the decomposition temperature of NaBH4 with temperatures ranging from 522 °C (titanium (IV) fluoride) to 379 °C (niobium (V) fluoride). We describe synthetic methods employed chemical pathways taken and the challenges of boron derivative formation on H2 cycling. Though no trends can be found across all additives it is our hope that compiling the data here will enable researchers to gain a better understanding of the additives’ influence and to determine how a new system might be designed to make NaBH4 a more viable H2 fuel source.
While there are many candidate hydrogen storage materials the vast majority are metal hydrides. Of the hydrides this review focuses solely on sodium borohydride (NaBH4) which is often not covered in other hydride reviews. However as it contains 10.6% (by weight) H2 that can release at 133 ± 3 JK−1mol−1 this inexpensive material has received renewed attention. NaBH4 should decompose to H2g) Na(s) and B(s) and could be recycled into its original form. Unfortunately metal to ligand charge transfer in NaBH4 induces high thermodynamic stability creating a high decomposition temperature of 530 °C. In an effort make H2 more accessible at lower temperatures researchers have incorporated additives to destabilize the structure.
This review highlights metal additives that have successfully reduced the decomposition temperature of NaBH4 with temperatures ranging from 522 °C (titanium (IV) fluoride) to 379 °C (niobium (V) fluoride). We describe synthetic methods employed chemical pathways taken and the challenges of boron derivative formation on H2 cycling. Though no trends can be found across all additives it is our hope that compiling the data here will enable researchers to gain a better understanding of the additives’ influence and to determine how a new system might be designed to make NaBH4 a more viable H2 fuel source.
Low Carbon Scenario Analysis of a Hydrogen-Based Energy Transition for On-Road Transportation in California
Nov 2021
Publication
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) are emerging as one of the prominent zero emission vehicle technologies. This study follows a deterministic modeling approach to project two scenarios of FCEV adoption and the resulting hydrogen demand (low and high) up to 2050 in California using a transportation transition model. The study then estimates the number of hydrogen production and refueling facilities required to meet demand. The impact of system scale-up and learning rates on hydrogen price is evaluated using standalone supply chain models: H2A HDSAM HRSAM and HDRSAM. A sensitivity analysis explores key factors that affect hydrogen prices. In the high scenario light and heavy-duty fuel cell vehicle stocks reach 12.5 million and 1 million by 2050 respectively. The resulting annual hydrogen demand is 3.9 billion kg making hydrogen the dominant transportation fuel. Satisfying such high future demands will require rapid increases in infrastructure investments starting now but especially after 2030 when there is an exponential increase in the number of production plants and refueling stations. In the long term electrolytic hydrogen delivered using dedicated hydrogen pipelines to larger stations offers substantial cost savings. Feedstock prices size of the hydrogen market and station utilization are the prominent parameters that affect hydrogen price.
No more items...