Policy & Socio-Economics

With the rising demand for renewable hydrogen as an alternative sustainable fuel efficient transport strategies have become essential particularly for regional and small-scale applications. While most previous studies focus on the long-distance transport of hydrogen little attention has been given to the application in regions that are remote from major transmission infrastructure. This study evaluates the techno-economic performance of hydrogen road transport using multiple-element hydrogen gas containers and compares it with multimodal transport using rail. The comparison is performed for the southeastern region of the Czech Republic. The comprehensive techno-economic assessment incorporates detailed technical evaluations precise fuel and energy consumption calculations and realworld infrastructure planning to enhance accuracy. Results showed that multimodal transport of hydrogen can significantly reduce the cost for distances exceeding 90 km. The cost is calculated based on annual vehicle utilization assuming the remaining utilization will be allocated to other tasks throughout the year. However the cost-effectiveness of rail transportation is influenced by track capacity limits and possible delays. Additionally this study highlights the crucial role of regional logistics hubs in optimizing transport modes further reducing costs and improving efficiency

Climate change will impact the affordability and independence of household green hydrogen systems due to shifting climate patterns and more frequent extreme events. However quantifying these impacts remains challenging because of the complex interactions among climate building characteristics and energy systems in urban environments. This study presents an integrated modeling platform that couples regional climate projections building energy performance simulations and energy system optimization to assess long-term climate impacts across four representative Canadian cities from 2010 to 2090. The results indicate that cooling-dominated cities may face up to a 50 % increase in energy costs and an 20 % rise in grid dependency whereas heating-dominated cities may experience cost reductions of up to 20 % and a 35 % decrease in grid reliance. Although climatealigned system designs cannot fully mitigate climate-induced performance variations they influence levelized cost of energy increasing it by up to 60 % in cooling-dominated cities but improving it by over 5 % in heatingdominated ones. These findings suggest that enhancing grid connectivity may be a more effective strategy than modifying system designs in cooling-dominated regions whereas adaptive design strategies offer greater benefits in heating-dominated areas.

As hydrogen products emerge as a promising energy alternative in multiple sectors low carbon hydrogen supply chains require concerted efforts among a diverse array of stakeholders. Within an evolving energy transition landscape stakeholders’ competition and cooperation play a critical role in expediting the deployment of the hydrogen economy. In this review different strategies referred to as Hydrogen Competition Cooperation and Coopetition (H2CCC) dynamics are analyzed from the lenses of game theory. The study employs hybrid literature review methodology integrating both bibliometric and structured review approaches. The study reveals that competition and cooperation represent a contrasting but interconnected dynamics that drive the energy transition. Coopetition models are less common. Furthermore it is observed that Integrated Energy Systems are mainly used in cooperative and coopetitive approaches while H2 technologies and Hydrogen Supply Chains are more explored in competitive approaches. Industrial and mobility sectors are present in H2CCC dynamics with technological players more present than institutional entities. Maps definitions gaps and perspectives are developed. These insights may be valuable for policymakers industry stakeholders modelers and researchers. There remains a need for further empirical H2CCC case studies and applications of pure coopetitive games.

The future is bright for hydrogen as a clean mobile energy source to replace petroleum products. This paper examines new and emerging technologies for hydrogen production storage and conversion and highlights recent commercialization efforts to realize its potential. Also the paper presents selected notable patents issued within the last few years. There is no shortage of inventions and innovations in hydrogen technologies in both academia and industry. While metal hydrides and functionalized carbon-based materials have improved tremendously as hydrogen storage materials over the years storing gaseous hydrogen in underground salt caverns has also become feasible in many commercial projects. Production of “blue hydrogen” is rising as a method of producing hydrogen in large quantities economically. Although electric/battery powered vehicles are dominating the green transport today innovative hydrogen fuel cell technologies are knocking at the door because of their lower refueling time compared to EV charging time. However the highest impact of hydrogen technologies in trans portation might be seen in the aviation industry. Hydrogen is expected to play a key role and provides hope in transforming aviation into a zero-carbon emission transportation over the next few decades.

As the European countries strive to meet their ambitious climate goals renewable hydrogen has emerged to aid in decarbonizing energy-intensive sectors and support the overall energy transition. To ensure that hydrogen production aligns with these goals the European Commission has introduced criteria for additionality temporal correlation and geographical correlation. These criteria are designed to ensure that hydrogen production from renewable sources supports the growth of renewable energy. This study assesses the impact of these criteria on green hydrogen production focusing on production costs and technology impacts. The European energy market is simulated up to 2048 using stochastic programming applying these requirements exclusively to green hydrogen production without the phased-in compliance period outlined in the EU regulations. The findings show that meeting the criteria will increase expected system costs by €82 billion from 2024 to 2048 largely due to the rapid shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy. The additionality requirement which mandates the use of new renewable energy installations for electrolysis proves to be the most expensive but also the most effective in accelerating renewable energy adoption.

The climate crisis and global warming have created an urgent need for the scalable adoption of affordable and clean energy sources to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. Decarbonization of global industries is critical to achieving the targets of the Paris Agreement and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (especially Goals 7 and 13). Green hydrogen is becoming a key solution in the transition to renewable energy and the decarbonization with low-carbon energy options. This review presents an overview of the status and trends of hydrogen production storage transportation and application as well as key research areas with a forward-looking perspective to 2050. It explores the key challenges such as limited infrastructure high production costs and heavy energy demands. The study also identifies the drivers and barriers influencing hydrogen adoption across utility-scale electricity generation heating and niche markets. Key actions of governments in these pillar areas are necessary to accelerate hydrogen deployment through strategic investments and a policy framework to reduce technological costs and drive innovation. Transformative innovation in power generation transportation industrial processes and infrastructure will be essential to achieving deep decarbonization. In addition progress in digitalization automation data-driven decision-making recycling incentives and circular economies are essential to a social transformation and a global transition toward sustainability. Emerging hydrogen markets are also playing an increasingly dominant role in economic and human development particularly in low- and middle-income countries as the world works to transition to the use of renewable hydrogen.

Biohydrogen is known for its clean fuel properties with zero emissions. It serves as a reliable alternative to fossil fuel. This paper analyses the status of bio-hydrogen production in Malaysia and the on-going efforts on its advancement. Critical discussions were put forward on biohydrogen production from thermochemical and biological technologies governing associated technological issues and development. Moreover a comprehensive and vital overview has been made on Malaysian and global polices with road maps for the development of biohydrogen and its application in different sectors. This review article provides a framework for researchers on bio-hydrogen production technologies investors and the government to align policies for the biohydrogen based economy. Current biohydrogen energy outlook for production installation units and storage capacity are the key points to be highlighted from global and Malaysia’s perspectives. This critical and comprehensive review provides a strategic route for the researcher to research towards sustainable technology. Current policies related to hydrogen as fuel infrastructure in Malaysia and commercialization are highlighted. Malaysia is also gearing towards clean and decarbonization planning.

Biodiesel production through transesterification results in a large quantity of crude glycerol as a byproduct the utilization of which is technically and economically challenging. Because of the ability to efficiently process wet feedstocks supercritical water gasification (SCWG) is utilized in this study to convert crude glycerol into hydrogen-rich syngas. A significant challenge addressed through this study is the decomposition routes of different heterogeneous components of crude glycerol during SCWG. Pure glycerol methanol and oleic acid were investigated for SCWG as the model compounds of crude glycerol. SCWG of model compounds at temperature pressure feedstock concentration and reaction time of 500 ◦C 23–25 MPa 10 wt% and 1 h respectively revealed methanol to exhibit the highest H2 yield of 7.7 mmol/g followed by pure glycerol (4.4 mmol/g) and oleic acid (1.1 mmol/g). The effects of feedstock concentration from 30 wt% to 10 wt% increased H2 yield from all model compounds. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to develop a response curve to visualize the interactive behavior and develop model equations for the prediction of H2 -rich gas yields as a function of the composition of model compounds in the crude glycerol mixture. Predictive models showed a good agreement with experimental results demonstrating high accuracy and robustness of the model. These findings demonstrated a strong potential of crude glycerol for SCWG to generate H2 -rich syngas.

This Review provides an overview of the emerging concepts of catalystsmembranes and membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) for water electrolyzers with anion-exchange membranes (AEMs) also known as zero-gap alkaline water electrolyzers. Much ofthe recent progress is due to improvements in materials chemistry MEA designs andoptimized operation conditions. Research on anion-exchange polymers (AEPs) has focusedon the cationic head/backbone/side-chain structures and key properties such as ionicconductivity and alkaline stability. Several approaches such as cross-linking microphase andorganic/inorganic composites have been proposed to improve the anion-exchangeperformance and the chemical and mechanical stability of AEMs. Numerous AEMs nowexceed values of 0.1 S/cm (at 60−80 °C) although the stability specifically at temperaturesexceeding 60 °C needs further enhancement. The oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is still alimiting factor. An analysis of thin-layer OER data suggests that NiFe-type catalysts have thehighest activity. There is debate on the active-site mechanism of the NiFe catalysts and their long-term stability needs to beunderstood. Addition of Co to NiFe increases the conductivity of these catalysts. The same analysis for the hydrogen evolutionreaction (HER) shows carbon-supported Pt to be dominating although PtNi alloys and clusters of Ni(OH) 2 on Pt show competitiveactivities. Recent advances in forming and embedding well-dispersed Ru nanoparticles on functionalized high-surface-area carbonsupports show promising HER activities. However the stability of these catalysts under actual AEMWE operating conditions needsto be proven. The field is advancing rapidly but could benefit through the adaptation of new in situ techniques standardizedevaluation protocols for AEMWE conditions and innovative catalyst-structure designs. Nevertheless single AEM water electrolyzercells have been operated for several thousand hours at temperatures and current densities as high as 60 °C and 1 A/cm 2 respectively.

The concept of sustainability and green energy has become increasingly relevant in our lives especially in the face of climate change and the growing demand for sustainable solutions in the energy sector. Driven by renewable energies there is a continuous effort to research and develop alternative energy sources and fuels. In this context the European Union (EU) Strategy for Hydrogen (H) has emerged placing this source as one of the central pillars in the fight against climate change. Hydrogen is seen as a potential fuel and energy source of the future. However in addition to political and structural challenges this new approach also faces significant technical obstacles. With the increase in population and human needs the need for energy continues to grow. The world population is projected to reach ten billion people by the year 2050 (Tarhan and Çil 2021). To meet this growing demand and promote a transition to clean energies many countries are incorporating renewable energy sources into their energy mix while still relying on fossil fuels. Developed countries are gradually reducing their use of fossil fuels in energy production. Considering that 80 per cent of our daily energy needs are still met by these sources the complete transition is complex and not immediate but it is an achievable goal.

We develop a bidding strategy for a hybrid power plant combining co-located wind turbines and an electrolyzer constructing a price-quantity bidding curve for the day-ahead electricity market while optimally scheduling hydrogen production. Without risk management single imbalance pricing leads to an all-or-nothing trading strategy which we term “betting”. To address this we propose a data-driven pragmatic approach that leverages contextual information to train linear decision policies for both power bidding and hydrogen scheduling. By introducing explicit risk constraints to limit imbalances we move from the all-or-nothing approach to a “trading” strategy where the plant diversifies its power trading decisions. We evaluate the model under three scenarios: when the plant is either conditionally allowed always allowed or not allowed to buy power from the grid which impacts the green certification of the hydrogen produced. Comparing our data-driven strategy with an oracle model that has perfect foresight we show that the risk-constrained data-driven approach delivers satisfactory performance.

To round off Season 5 the team are taking the podcast to COP28 in Dubai and providing listeners with a bit of texture including what the event was like to attend as well as sharing a snapshot of some of the varied voices and discussions that took place. Having had a little time for reflection Alicia Chris and Patrick also offer their thoughts and takeaways on what this COP might mean for the future.

COP28 was the first in nearly 30 years to feature hydrogen as part of the Presidential Action Agenda.

The podcast can be found on their website.

This review explores the current status of green hydrogen integration into energy and industrial ecosystems. By considering notable examples of existing and developing green hydrogen initiatives combined with insights from the relevant scientific literature this paper illustrates the practical implementation of those systems according to their main end use: power and heat generation mobility industry or their combination. Main patterns are highlighted in terms of sectoral applications geographical distribution development scales storage solutions electrolyzer technology grid interaction and financial viability. Open challenges are also addressed including the high production costs an underdeveloped transport and distribution infrastructure the geopolitical aspects and the weak business models with the industrial sector appearing as the most favorable environment where such challenges may first be overcome in the medium term.

Hydrogen is increasingly recognized as a clean energy vector and storage medium yet its viability and strategic role in the Western Balkans remain underexplored. This study provides the first comprehensive techno-economic environmental and strategic evaluation of hydrogen production pathways in Albania. Results show clear trade-offs across options. The levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) is estimated at 8.76 €/kg H2 for grid-connected 7.75 €/kg H2 for solar and 7.66 €/kg H2 for wind electrolysis—values above EU averages and reliant on lower electricity costs and efficiency gains. In contrast fossil-based hydrogen via steam methane reforming (SMR) is cheaper at 3.45 €/kg H2 rising to 4.74 €/kg H2 with carbon capture and storage (CCS). Environmentally Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) results show much lower Global Warming Potential.

Hydrogen energy is critical in replacing fossil fuels and achieving net zero carbon emissions by 2050. Three measures can be implemented to promote hydrogen energy: reduce the cost of low-carbon hydrogen through technological improvements increase the production capacity of low-carbon hydrogen by stimulating investment and enhance hydrogen use as an energy carrier and in industrial processes by demand-side policies. This article examines how effective these measures are if successfully implemented in boosting the hydrogen market and reducing global economy-wide carbon emissions using a global computable general equilibrium model. The results show that all the measures increase the production and use of low-carbon hydrogen whether implemented alone or jointly. Notably the emissions reduced by joint implementation of all the measures in 2050 become 2.5 times the sum of emissions reduced by individual implementation indicating a considerable multiplier effect. This suggests supply and demand side policies be implemented jointly to maximize their impact on reducing emissions.

Developing countries including Ghana face challenges ensuring access to clean and reliable cooking fuels and technologies. Traditional biomass sources mainly used in most developing countries for cooking contribute to deforestation and indoor air pollution necessitating a shift towards environmentally friendly alternatives. The study’s primary objective is to evaluate the economic viability of using solar PV-based green hydrogen as a sustainable fuel for cooking in Ghana. The study adopted well-established equations to investigate the economic performance of the proposed system. The findings revealed that the levelized cost of hydrogen using the discounted cash flow approach is about 89% 155% and 190% more than electricity liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and charcoal. This implies that using the hydrogen produced for cooking fuel is not cost-competitive compared to LPG charcoal and electricity. However with sufficient capital subsidies to lower the upfront costs the analysis suggests solar PV-based hydrogen could become an attractive alternative cooking fuel. In addition switching from firewood to solar PVbased hydrogen for cooking yields the highest carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions savings across the cities analysed. Likewise replacing charcoal with hydrogen also offers substantial CO2 emissions savings though lower than switching from firewood. Correspondingly switching from LPG to hydrogen produces lower CO2 emissions savings than firewood and charcoal. The study findings could contribute to the growing body of knowledge on sustainable energy solutions offering practical insights for policymakers researchers and industry stakeholders seeking to promote clean cooking adoption in developing economies.

Despite uncertainties surrounding the hydrogen economy’s emergence in terms of technological innovation production storage and transport policy and regulation economic viability and environmental impact coun tries worldwide actively pursue initiatives to engage in this critical energy transition. Politicians analysts and global experts see ‘clean’ hydrogen as the ultimate solution for addressing the climate crisis. This optimism is shared by several major oil and gas-exporting nations which are investing heavily in hydrogen infrastructure to establish themselves as future global hubs. Oman Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) are especially well-positioned benefiting from strategic advantages over other hydrogen-producing regions in the Global South. Advocates in these countries view hydrogen as a potential ‘silver bullet’ for sustaining political and economic influence in a world increasingly shaped by climate constraints. Western technology and expertise play a significant role in supporting these efforts. By using various qualitative methods this paper employs and expand the concept of technopolitics to evaluate the role of industrialized nations in endorsing the Gulf states’ authoritarian top-down techno-optimistic approach to their sustainability agenda.

This report shows how the infrastructure that exists today can evolve from one based on the supply of fossil fuels to one providing the backbone of a clean hydrogen system. The ambitious government hydrogen targets across the UK will only be met with clarity focus and partnership. The gas networks are ready to play their part in the UK’s energy future. They have a plan know what is needed to deliver it and are taking the necessary steps to do just that.

Supporters of hydrogen energy urge scaling up technology and reducing costs for competitiveness. This paper explores how hydrogen energy technologies (HET) are perceived by Australia’s general population and considers the way members of the public imagine their role in the implementation of hydrogen energy now and into the future. The study combines a nationally representative survey (n = 403) and semi-structured interviews (n = 30). Results show age and gender relationships with self-reported hydrogen knowledge. Half of the participants obtained hydrogen information from televised media. Strong support was observed for renewable hydrogen while coal (26%) and natural gas (41%) versions had less backing. Participants sought more safety-related information (41% expressed concern). Most felt uncertain about influencing hydrogen decisions and did not necessarily recognise they had agency beyond their front fence. Exploring the link between political identity and agency in energy decision-making is needed with energy democracy a potentially productive direction.

As the global energy transition progresses a range of drivers and barriers will continue to shape consumer attitudes and behavioural intentions towards emerging low-carbon technologies. The innovation-decision process for technologies composing the residential sector such as hydrogen-fuelled heating and cooking appliances is inherently governed by the complex interplay between perceptual cognitive and emotional factors. In response this study responds to the call for an integrated research perspective to advance theoretical and empirical insights on consumer engagement in the domestic hydrogen transition. Drawing on online survey data collected in the United Kingdom where a policy decision on ‘hydrogen homes’ is set for 2026 this study systematically explores whether an integrated modelling approach supports higher levels of explanatory and predictive power. Leveraging the foundations of the unified theory of domestic hydrogen acceptance the analysis suggests that production perceptions public trust perceived relative advantage safety perceptions knowledge and awareness and positive emotions will shape consumer support for hydrogen homes. Conversely perceived disruptive impacts perceived socio-economic costs financial perceptions and negative emotions may impede the domestic hydrogen transition. Consumer acceptance stands to significantly shape deployment prospects for hydrogen boilers and hobs which are perceived to be somewhat advantageous to natural gas appliances from a technological and safety perspective. The study attests to the predictive benefits of adopting an integrated theoretical perspective when modelling the early stages of the innovation-decision process while acknowledging opportunities for leveraging innovative research approaches in the future. As national hydrogen economies gain traction adopting a neuroscience-based approach may help deepen scientific understanding regarding the neural psychological and emotional signatures shaping consumer perspectives towards hydrogen homes.

Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can support the development of sustainable and flexible energy systems. However decarbonization can occur when green sources are used for energy production and appropriate water use is manifested. This work aims to propose a socio-economic analysis of hydrogen production from an integrated wind and electrolysis plant in southern Italy. The estimated production amounts to about 1.8 million kg and the LCOH is calculated to be 3.60 €/kg in the base scenario. Analyses of the alternative scenarios allow us to observe that with a high probability the value ranges between 3.20-4.00 €/kg and that the capacity factor is the factor that most affects the economic results. Social analysis conducted through an online survey shows a strong knowledge gap as only 27.5% claim to know the difference between green and grey hydrogen. There is a slight propensity to install systems near their homes but this tends to increase due to increased knowledge on the topic. Respondents state sustainable behaviours and this study suggests that these aspects should also be transformed into the energy choices that are implemented every day. The study suggests information to policy-makers businesses and citizens as it outlines that green hydrogen is an operations strategy that moves toward sustainable development.

The article examines the role of green hydrogen in reducing CO2 emissions in the transition to climate neutrality highlighting both its benefits and challenges. It starts by discussing the production of green hydrogen from renewable sources and provides a brief analysis of primary resource structures for energy production in European countries including Romania. Despite progress there remains a significant reliance on fossil fuels in some countries. Economic technologies for green hydrogen production are explored with a note that its production alone does not solve all issues due to complex and costly compression and storage operations. The concept of impure green hydrogen derived from biomass gasification pyrolysis fermentation and wastewater purification is also discussed. Economic efficiency and future trends in green hydrogen production are outlined. The article concludes with an analysis of hydrogen-methane mixture combustion technologies offering a conceptual framework for economically utilizing green hydrogen in the transition to a green hydrogen economy.

: In remote areas or islands like Cyprus the isolated energy system high energy consumption in the transport sector and projected excess electricity production from solar sources create favourable conditions for establishing a hydrogen valley. But even after addressing technological managerial economic and financial challenges the success of a hydrogen valley hinges on the acceptance and engagement of the local population. The role of citizens is under-researched by academia and overlooked by policymakers. Our paper’s contribution is unique data from a purposefully developed survey of Cypriot residents. The findings reveal robust support for the renewable energy transition in principle with 90% expressing supportive views of which 57% ‘strongly support’ the transition and notably middle-aged more educated and fully employed individuals showing the strongest support. At the same time our results show that 62% are unfamiliar with the concept of a hydrogen economy. The promising finding is that 80% of citizens are ‘very likely’ (25%) or ‘somewhat likely’ (55%) to engage in discussions or activities related to the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus. Gender differences in the willingness to engage are however evident: 32% of males indicated they are ‘very likely’ to participate versus 23% of females. We conclude that the prevailing citizen behaviour in Cyprus is “Seeking Information” and we make policy suggestions outlining the top ten engagement tools to foster awareness among the general population and the top ten strategies targeting active supporters of hydrogen in Cyprus to elevate their involvement to ‘Action’ and ‘Advocacy’ levels of engagement.

"The Oxford Institute for Energy Studies started researching the role of hydrogen in the energy transition in 2020.  Since then the interest in hydrogen has continued to grow globally across the energy industry. A key research question has been the extent to which clean hydrogen can be scaled up at reasonable cost and whether it can play a significant role in the global energy system. In April 2022 OIES launched a new Hydrogen Research Programme under the overarching theme of ’building business cases for a hydrogen economy’. This overarching theme was selected based on the observation that most clean hydrogen developments to date had been relatively small-scale pilot or demonstration projects typically funded by government grants or subsidies. For clean hydrogen to play a significant role there will need to be business cases developed in order to attract the many hundreds of billions of dollars of investment required  most of which will need to come from the private sector albeit ultimately underpinned by government-backed decarbonisation policies.  Just over a year has passed since the start of the Hydrogen Research Programme and the intention of this paper is to pull together key themes which have emerged from the research so far and which can form a useful framework for further research both by OIES and others.<br/>The six key themes in this paper listed below are intended to create a framework to at least start to address the challenges:<br/>Hydrogen is in competition with other decarbonisation alternatives.<br/>The business case for clean hydrogen relies on government policy to drive decarbonisation.<br/>It is essential to understand emissions associated with potential hydrogen investments.<br/>Hydrogen investments need to consider the full value chain and its geopolitics.<br/>Transport of hydrogen is expensive and so should be minimised.<br/>Storage of hydrogen is an essential part of the value chain and requires more focus.

The economies of fossil fuel exporters are threatened by global efforts to transition away from using unabated fossil fuels. Producing clean hydrogen for export or domestic use in manufacturing provides a potentially major opportunity to continue exploiting their fossil fuel resources. However the substantial uncertainties affecting the future of clean hydrogen make developing hydrogen strategies complex. This paper characterizes such uncertainties and conducts an initial assessment of possible investment risks and critical decisions associated with different strategies in the case of Qatar a leading exporter of natural gas. We find that strategies mostly focused on using clean hydrogen domestically to produce clean commodities are relatively low risk; inversely becoming a leading exporter of clean hydrogen substantially increases investment risks. Also irrespective of the strategy higher investment is required in the early years suggesting that once a strategy is chosen changing path may prove difficult.

Concerning the transition from a carbon-based energy economy to a renewable energy economy hydrogen is considered an essential energy carrier for efficient and broad energy systems in China in the near future. China aims to gradually replace fossil fuel-based power generation with renewable energy technologies to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060. This ambitious undertaking will involve building an industrial production chain spanning the production storage transportation and utilisation of hydrogen energy by 2030 (when China’s carbon peak will be reached). This review analyses the current status of technological R&D in China’s hydrogen energy industry. Based on published data in the open literature we compared the costs and carbon emissions for grey blue and green hydrogen production. The primary challenges concerning hydrogen transportation and storage are highlighted in this study. Given that primary carbon emissions in China are a result of power generation using fossil fuels we provide an overview of the advances in hydrogen-to-power industry technology R&D including hydrogen-related power generation technology hydrogen fuel cells hydrogen internal combustion engines hydrogen gas turbines and catalytic hydrogen combustion using liquid hydrogen carriers (e.g. ammonia methanol and ethanol).

Currently the global energy structure is undergoing a transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources with the hydrogen economy playing a pivotal role. Hydrogen is not only an important energy carrier needed to achieve the global goal of energy conservation and emission reduction it represents a key object of the future international energy trade. As hydrogen trade expands nations are increasingly allocating resources to enhance the international competitiveness of their respective hydrogen industries. This paper introduces an index that can be used to evaluate international hydrogen competitiveness and elucidate the most competitive countries in the hydrogen trade. To calculate the competitiveness scores of seven major prospective hydrogen market participants we employed the entropy weight method. This method considers five essential factors: potential resources economic and financial base infrastructure government support and institutional environment and technological feasibility. The results indicate that the USA and Australia exhibit the highest composite indices. These findings can serve as a guide for countries in formulating suitable policies and strategies to bolster the development and international competitiveness of their respective hydrogen industries.

There is a growing interest in green hydrogen with researchers institutions and countries focusing on its development efficiency improvement and cost reduction. This paper explores the concept of green hydrogen and its production process using renewable energy sources in several leading countries including Australia the European Union India Canada China Russia the United States South Korea South Africa Japan and other nations in North Africa. These regions possess significant potential for “green” hydrogen production supporting the transition from fossil fuels to clean energy and promoting environmental sustainability through the electrolysis process a common method of production. The paper also examines the benefits of green hydrogen as a future alternative to fossil fuels highlighting its superior environmental properties with zero net greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover it explores the potential advantages of green hydrogen utilization across various industrial commercial and transportation sectors. The research suggests that green hydrogen can be the fuel of the future when applied correctly in suitable applications with improvements in production and storage techniques as well as enhanced efficiency across multiple domains. Optimization strategies can be employed to maximize efficiency minimize costs and reduce environmental impact in the design and operation of green hydrogen production systems. International cooperation and collaborative efforts are crucial for the development of this technology and the realization of its full benefits.

Considering the clean renewable and ecologically friendly characteristics of hydrogen gas as well as its high energy density hydrogen energy is thought to be the most potent contender to locally replace fossil fuels. The creation of a sustainable energy system is currently one of the critical industrial challenges and electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution associated with appropriate safe storage techniques are key strategies to implement systems based on hydrogen technologies. The recent progress made possible through nanotechnology incorporation either in terms of innovative methods of hydrogen storage or production methods is a guarantee of future breakthroughs in energy sustainability. This manuscript addresses concisely and originally the importance of including nanotechnology in both green electroproduction of hydrogen and hydrogen storage in solid media. This work is mainly focused on these issues and eventually intends to change beliefs that hydrogen technologies are being imposed only for reasons of sustainability and not for the intrinsic value of the technology itself. Moreover nanophysics and nano-engineering have the potential to significantly change the paradigm of conventional hydrogen technologies.

Industrial applications of hydrogen are key to the transition towards a sustainable lowcarbon economy. Hydrogen has the potential to decarbonize industrial sectors that currently rely heavily on fossil fuels. Hydrogen with its unique and versatile properties has several in-industrial applications that are fundamental for sustainability and energy efficiency such as the following: (i) chemical industry; (ii) metallurgical sector; (iii) transport; (iv) energy sector; and (v) agrifood sector. The development of a bibliometric analysis of industrial hydrogen applications in Europe is crucial to understand and guide developments in this emerging field. Such an analysis can identify research trends collaborations between institutions and countries and the areas of greatest impact and growth. By examining the scientific literature and comparing it with final hydrogen consumption in different regions of Europe the main actors and technologies that are driving innovation in industrial hydrogen use on the continent can be identified. The results obtained allow for an assessment of the knowledge gaps and technological challenges that need to be addressed to accelerate the uptake of hydrogen in various industrial sectors. This is essential to guide future investments and public policies towards strategic areas that maximize the economic and environmental impact of industrial hydrogen applications in Europe.

With the development of an energy sector based on renewable primary sources structural changes are emerging for the entire national energy system. Initially it was estimated that energy generation based on fossil fuels would decrease until its disappearance. However the evolution of CO2 capture capacity leads to a possible coexistence for a certain period with the renewable energy sector. The paper develops this concept of the coexistence of the two systems with the positioning of green hydrogen not only within the renewable energy sector but also as a transformation vector for carbon dioxide captured in the form of synthetic fuels such as CH4 and CH3OH. The authors conducted pilot-scale research on CO2 capture with green H2 both for pure (captured) CO2 and for CO2 found in combustion gases. The positive results led to the respective recommendation. The research conducted by the authors meets the strict requirements of the current energy phase with the authors considering that wind and solar energy alone are not sufficient to meet current energy demand. The paper also analyzes the economic aspects related to price differences for energy produced in the two sectors as well as their interconnection. The technical aspect as well as the economic aspect of storage through various other solutions besides hydrogen has been highlighted. The development of the renewable energy sector and its demarcation from the fossil fuel energy sector even with the transcendent vector represented by green hydrogen leads to the deepening of dispersion aspects between the electricity sector and the thermal energy sector a less commonly mentioned aspect in current works but of great importance. The purpose of this paper is to highlight energy challenges during the current transition period towards climate neutrality along with solutions proposed by the authors to be implemented in this phase. The current stage of combustion of the CH4 − H2 mixture imposes requirements for the capture of the resulting CO2.

Energy and environmental issues are of great importance in the present era. The transition to renewable energy sources necessitates technological political and behavioral transformations. Hydrogen is a promising solution and many countries are investing in the hydrogen economy. Global demand for hydrogen is expected to reach 120 million tonnes by 2024. The incorporation of hydrogen for efficient energy transport and storage and its integration into the transport sector are crucial measures. However to fully develop a hydrogen-based economy the sustainability and safety of hydrogen in all its applications must be ensured. This work describes and compares different technologies for hydrogen production storage and utilization (especially in fuel cell applications) with focus on the research activities under study at SaRAH group of the University of Naples Federico II. More precisely the focus is on the production of hydrogen from bio-alcohols and its storage in formate solutions produced from renewable sources such as biomass or carbon dioxide. In addition the use of materials inspired by nature including biowaste as feedstock to produce porous electrodes for fuel cell applications is presented. We hope that this review can be useful to stimulate more focused and fruitful research in this area and that it can open new avenues for the development of sustainable hydrogen technologies.

A sustainable future hydrogen economy hinges on the development of green hydrogen and the shift away from grey hydrogen but this is highly reliant on reducing production costs which are currently too high for green hydrogen to be competitive. This study predicts the cost trajectory of alkaline and proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers based on ongoing research and development (R&D) scale effects and experiential learning consequently influencing the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) projections. Electrolyzer capital costs are estimated to drop to 88 USD/kW for alkaline and 60 USD/kW for PEM under an optimistic scenario by 2050 or 388 USD/kW and 286 USD/kW respectively under a pessimistic scenario with PEM potentially dominating the market. Through a combination of declining electrolyzer costs and a levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) the global LCOH of green hydrogen is projected to fall below 5 USD/kgH2 for solar onshore and offshore wind energy sources under both scenarios by 2030. To facilitate a quicker transition the implementation of financial strategies such as additional revenue streams a hydrogen/carbon credit system and an oxygen one (a minimum retail price of 2 USD/kgO2 ) and regulations such as a carbon tax (minimum 100 USD/tonCO2 for 40 USD/MWh electricity) and a contract-for-difference scheme could be pivotal. These initiatives would act as financial catalysts accelerating the transition to a greener hydrogen economy.

This study develops a novel community-based integrated energy system where hydrogen and a combination of renewable energy sources are considered uniquely for implementation. In this regard three different communities situated in Kenya the United States and Australia are studied for hydrogen production and meeting the energy demands. To provide a variety of energy demands this study combines a multigenerational geothermal plant with a hybrid concentrated solar power and photovoltaic solar plant. Innovations in hydrogen production and renewable energy are essential for reducing carbon emissions. By combining the production of hydrogen with renewable energy sources this system seeks to move away from the reliance on fossil fuels and toward sustainability. The study investigates various research subjects using a variety of methods. The performance of the geothermal source is considered through energetic and exergetic thermodynamic analysis. The software System Advisor Model (SAM) and RETscreen software packages are used to analyze the other sub-systems including Concentrate Solar PV solar and Combined Heat and Power Plant. Australian American and Kenyan communities considered for this study were found to have promising potential for producing hydrogen and electricity from renewable sources. The geothermal output is expected to be 35.83 MW 122.8 MW for space heating 151.9 MW for industrial heating and 64.25 MW for hot water. The overall geothermal energy and exergy efficiencies are reported as 65.15% and 63.54% respectively. The locations considered are expected to have annual solar power generation and hydrogen production capacities of 158MW 237MW 186MW 235 tons 216 tons and 313 tons respectively.

To identify lower-carbon and cost-effective hydrogen supplies for fuel and power generation in Singapore we assessed the cradle-to-gate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the landed costs of over fifty supply chains from Malaysia and Australia with current and emerging blue turquoise and green hydrogen production and carrier technologies. We found that with current technologies the total life cycle global warming potential of local H2 production using steam methane reforming with carbon capture (4.47 kg CO2e/kg H2) is lower than importing solar-generated green H2 from Australia transported as NH3 (6.48 kg CO2e/kg H2) due to large emissions from conversion and transportation processes in the latter supply chain. When also considering emerging technologies turquoise H2 produced with the thermal decomposition of methane locally or in Malaysia is the most economical solution while wind-generated H2 from Australia transported as liquefied H2 or NH3 produce the least GHG emissions. In addition we projected the impacts of the Singapore carbon tax methane abatement in NG production and reduction of renewable energy embodied emissions and costs on the supply chains in the year 2030. We estimated that with the expected renewable energy improvements the emissions and costs of power generated from imported solar-powered H2 could drop by as much as 74% and 70% respectively.

This article presents the results of a comparative scenario analysis of the “green hydrogen” development pathways in Poland and the EU in the 2050 perspective. We prepared the scenarios by linking three models: two sectoral models for the power and transport sectors and a Computable General Equilibrium model (d-Place). The basic precondition for the large-scale use of hydrogen in both Poland and in European Union countries is the pursuit of ambitious greenhouse gas reduction targets. The EU plans indicate that the main source of hydrogen will be renewable energy (RES). “Green hydrogen” is seen as one of the main methods with which to balance energy supply from intermittent RES such as solar and wind. The questions that arise concern the amount of hydrogen required to meet the energy needs in Poland and Europe in decarbonized sectors of the economy and to what extent can demand be covered by internal production. In the article we estimated the potential of the production of “green hydrogen” derived from electrolysis for different scenarios of the development of the electricity sector in Poland and the EU. For 2050 it ranges from 76 to 206 PJ/y (Poland) and from 4449 to 5985 PJ/y (EU+). The role of hydrogen as an energy storage was also emphasized highlighting its use in the process of stabilizing the electric power system. Hydrogen usage in the energy sector is projected to range from 67 to 76 PJ/y for Poland and from 1066 to 1601 PJ/y for EU+ by 2050. Depending on the scenario this implies that between 25% and 35% of green hydrogen will be used in the power sector as a long-term energy storage.

This publication presents the results of a pre-feasibility study to introduce a green hydrogen (GH2) market in Trinidad and Tobago (T&T). The study analyzed the potential supply and competitiveness of producing GH2 in T&T and the actions needed to build a foundation for producing green ammonia and methanol. The study updated previous estimates of renewable energy generation potential in the country. The study also highlighted Trinidad and Tobago's comparative advantage to produce GH2 with its ability to capitalize on existing infrastructure its know-how and capabilities and its long-standing trade relations. Lastly the study identifies demonstration projects and created a roadmap for developing a low carbon hydrogen economy in Trinidad and Tobago.

In 2015 during the lead up to the Paris Climate Agreement the United States set forth a Nationally Determined Contribution that outlines national goals for greenhouse gas emission reductions. It was not until 2021 that the US put forth a long-term strategy that lays out the pathway to reach these goals. The US long-term strategy lays the framework for research needs to meet the greenhouse gas emission reduction goals and incentivizes industry to meet the goals using a variety of policies. The five US long term strategy core elements are to decarbonize electricity electrify end uses and switch to clean fuels cut energy waste reduce methane and other non-carbon dioxide greenhouse gas emissions and to scale up carbon dioxide removal. Implementation of the long term strategy has generally been funded by tax incentives and government grants that were approved as part of the Inflation Reduction Act. Political headwinds societal Not in My Backyard resistance long-term economic funding cumbersome permitting requirements and incentives vs. taxation debate are significant policy/nontechnical hurdles. Technical challenges remain regarding effective energy efficiency implementation the use of hydrogen as a fuel cost effective carbon emission treatment nuclear energy expansion renewables expansion and grid integration biofuel integration efficient and safe energy storage and electrical grid adequacy/expansion. This review article condenses the multitude of technical and policy issues facing the US long-term strategy providing readers with an overview of the extent and magnitude of the challenges while outlining possible solutions.

Hydrogen has been at the centre of attention since the EU kicked-off its decarbonization agenda at full speed. Many consider it a silver bullet for the deep decarbonization of technically challenging sectors and industries but it is also an attractive option for the gas industry to retain and future-proof its well-developed infrastructure networks. The modelling methodology presented in this report systematically tests the feasibility and cost of different pipeline transportation methods – blending repurposing and dedicated hydrogen pipelines - under different decarbonization pathways and concludes that blending is not a viable solution and pipeline repurposing can lead to excessive investment outlays in the range of EUR 19–25 bn over the modelled period (2020–2050) for the EU-27.

This report presents an analysis of how hydrogen and battery technologies are likely to be utilised in different sectors within the UK including transportation manufacturing the built environment and power. In particular the report compares the use of hydrogen and battery technology across these sectors. In addition it evaluates where these technologies will be in competition where one technology will dominate and where a combination of the two may be used. This sector analysis draws on DNV’s knowledge and experience within both the battery and hydrogen industries along with a review of studies available in the public domain. The analysis has been incorporated into DNV’s Energy Transition Outlook model an integrated system-dynamics simulation model covering the energy system which provides an independent view of the energy outlook from now until 2050. The modelling which includes data on costs demand supply policy population and economic indicators enables the non-linear interdependencies between different parameters to be considered so that decisions made in one sector influence the decision made in another.

The hydrogen energy industry as one of the most important directions for future energy transformation can promote the sustainable development of the global economy and of society. China has raised the development of hydrogen energy to a strategic position. Based on the patent data in the past two decades this study investigates the collaborative innovation relationships in China’s hydrogen energy field using complex network theory. Firstly patent data filed between 2003 and 2023 are analyzed and compared in terms of time geography and institutional and technological dimensions. Subsequently a patent collaborative innovation network is constructed to explore the fundamental characteristics and evolutionary patterns over five stages. Furthermore centrality measures and community detection algorithms are utilized to identify core entities and innovation alliances within the network which reveal that China’s hydrogen energy industry is drifting toward alliance innovation. The study results show the following: (1) the network has grown rapidly in size and scope over the last two decades and evolved from the initial stage to the multi-center stage before forming innovation alliances; (2) core innovative entities are important supports and bridges for China’s hydrogen energy industry and control most resources and maintain the robustness of the whole network; (3) innovation alliances reveal the closeness of the collaborative relationships between innovative entities and the potential landscape of China’s hydrogen energy industry; and (4) most of the innovation alliances cooperate only on a narrow range of technologies which may hinder the overall sustainable growth of the hydrogen energy industry. Thereafter some suggestions are put forward from the perspective of an industrial chain and innovation chain which may provide a theoretical reference for collaborative innovation and the future development and planning in the field of hydrogen energy in China.

Climate change and energy crises push Europe to accelerate the energy-industry transition towards higher shares of renewable energy and a more efficient integrated electricity-based energy-industry system. The study examines transition scenarios ranging from carbon neutrality reached in 2050 to highest ambitions with 100% renewable electricity supply reached by 2030 and an overall carbon-neutral energy-industry system by 2035. The fastest transition coincidences with higher cost but still with an acceptable tolerance. Reaching carbon neutrality by 2040 allows for a substantial reduction in CO2 emissions and energy costs are lower compared to the fastest transition. Allowing e-fuel imports substantially reduces the energy cost in Europe compared to complete energy sovereignty with an optimal import share at only 7% of primary energy demand. Reaching an affordable energy supply requires close cooperation of European countries to exploit the best renewable resources and all sources of energy system flexibility to enable a low-cost energy supply.

The global need for energy has risen sharply recently. A global shift to clean energy is urgently needed to avoid catastrophic climate impacts. Hydrogen (H2) has emerged as a potential alternative energy source with near-net-zero emissions. In the African continent for sustainable access to clean energy and the transition away from fossil fuels this paper presents a new approach through which waste energy can produce green hydrogen from biomass. Bio-based hydrogen employing organic waste and biomass is recommended using biological (anaerobic digestion and fermentation) processes for scalable cheaper and low-carbon hydrogen. By reviewing all methods for producing green hydrogen dark fermentation can be applied in developed and developing countries without putting pressure on natural resources such as freshwater and rare metals the primary feedstocks used in producing green hydrogen by electrolysis. It can be expanded to produce medium- and long-term green hydrogen without relying heavily on energy sources or building expensive infrastructure. Implementing the dark fermentation process can support poor communities in producing green hydrogen as an energy source regardless of political and tribal conflicts unlike other methods that require political stability. In addition this approach does not require the approval of new legislation. Such processes can ensure the minimization of waste and greenhouse gases. To achieve cost reduction in hydrogen production by 2030 governments should develop a strategy to expand the use of dark fermentation reactors and utilize hot water from various industrial processes (waste energy recovery from hot wastewater).

This report investigates the status and trend of Renewable Fuels of Non-Biological Origin (RFNBO) except hydrogen which are needed to cover part of the EU’s demand for low carbon renewable fuels in the coming years. The report is an update of the CETO 2023 report. Most of the conversion technologies investigated have been already demonstrated at small-scale and the current EU legislative framework under the recast of the Renewable Energy Directive (EU) 2018/2001 (Directive EU 2023/2413) sets specific targets for their use. As a pre-requisite well-established solid hydrogen supply chains are needed together with carbon capture technologies to provide carbon dioxide as Carbon Capture and Use (CCU). Fuels that may be produced starting from H2 and CO2 or N2 are hydrocarbons alcohols and ammonia. RFNBO may play a crucial role in the energytransition towards decarbonisation especially in hard-to-abate sectors where direct electrification is not possible. In addition most RFNBO can use existing infrastructure. The growing interest in these fuels is witnessed by the many funding programmes which are today available. Moreover EU leads the sector in terms of patents companies and demonstration activities. Finally the report considers the major challenges and the opportunities for a rapid market uptake of such fuels.

Photovoltaic (PV) system grid integration is becoming more global to minimize carbon emissions from traditional power systems.However alternative solution investigation for maximum technical and economic benefits is often neglected when integrating PVsystems. This study utilizes a methodology for evaluating the lifecycle energy generation and levelized cost of energy (LCOE) ofPV systems with various configurations using a holistic approach that considers PV system expenditures from installation to theend-of-life PV system operation. In addition this work focuses on finding a better configuration with different PV modules(monofacial or bifacial) and structure types (mounted or single-axis) for three different utility scale PV sizes (300 kW 500 kWand 1000 kW) in Abu Dhabi UAE with the maximum power generation and minimal energy losses. Furthermore the bestsuitable configuration was identified to be the configuration with a single-axis tracking structure and bifacial PV modulesbased on their technical and economic performance for the location with two different surface albedo 0.2 and 0.8. We alsostudy the PV system’s connection in a standalone off-grid solar-electrolyzer combination to produce green hydrogen. Levelizedcost of electricity (LCOE) and levelized cost of hydrogen production (LCOH) are calculated and results show that such PVsystems can be used to generate electricity and produce hydrogen at competitive costs that can reach as low as 2.1 cent/kWhand $2.53/kg-H2 for LCOE and LCOH respectively. Such a low cost is very competitive and can be used to attract newinvestments in green hydrogen technology in the United Arab Emirates.

This report is an output of the Clean Energy Technology Observatory (CETO). CETO's objective is to provide an evidence-based analysis feeding the policy making process and hence increasing the effectiveness of R&I policies for clean energy technologies and solutions. It monitors EU research and innovation activities on clean energy technologies needed for the delivery of the European Green Deal; and assesses the competitiveness of the EU clean energy sector and its positioning in the global energy market. CETO is being implemented by the Joint Research Centre for DG Research and Innovation in coordination with DG Energy.

Green hydrogen obtained from renewable electricity can play an essential role in the decarbonization of different sectors. The reliability of the data used to model the entire supply chain is a crucial parameter in Life Cycle Assessment. In this study the authors show how photovoltaic and wind electricity supply chains influence the carbon footprint of green H2. While most published studies rely on default datasets from commercial libraries the current work exploits the actual supply chain of the PV panels and builds an updated average European wind turbine supply chain. The updated values for PV-based H2 experiencing a 40–60% reduction are 2.7 and 1.8 kg CO2 eq./kg H2 for the UK and Italy. The carbon footprint of UK offshore wind-based H2 can be reduced up to 24% and get close to 0.6 kg CO2 eq./kg H2. The findings emphasize the sensitivity of the final climate profile generated by the processes upstream of the electrolysis system.

We analyze barriers to setting up a hydrogen market by using a PESTEL framework that examines political economic social technological environmental and legal barriers. This framework is advantageous for analyzing macro-environmental factors to understand potential challenges and opportunities in creating such a market. Internationally the framework was applied to analyzing barriers in 56 national hydrogen roadmaps and domestically in the U.S. to semi-structured interviews with 43 stakeholders involved with hydrogen projects across the U.S. today. In the country-level international analysis infrastructure development was the most identified barrier with 43 countries including this factor. Infrastructure development included infrastructure for hydrogen storage transportation and distribution and frequently alluded not only to the need for the infra structure but also the costs associated. The second most identified barrier was related to the need for market development - including but not limited to capital costs economic competition supply and demand matching and first-mover reticence. For the domestic analysis results from qualitative content analysis confirmed considerable variability across regions and stakeholder backgrounds. Particularly notable were divergent views about the importance of public understanding of and support for hydrogen projects with industry respondents arguing this was not important and government and academic respondents considering it very important. The barriers seen as having the largest impact on deployment of hydrogen projects was a lack of regulatory clarity and lack of decision makers’ knowledge and awareness. Domestically the most often introduced barriers were the need for the support of market demand and the need to develop a hydrogen workforce.

The influence of mobility modes within Positive Energy Districts (PEDs) has gained limited attention despite their crucial role in reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Buildings in the European Union (EU) account for 40% of energy consumption and 36% of greenhouse gas emissions. In comparison transport contributes 28% of energy use and 25% of emissions with road transport responsible for 72% of these emissions. This study aims to design and optimize a synthetic PED in Istanbul that integrates renewable energy sources and public mobility systems to address these challenges. The renewable energy sources integrated into the synthetic PED model include solar energy hydrogen energy and regenerative braking energy from a tram system. Solar panels provided a substantial portion of the energy while hydrogen energy contributed to additional electricity generation. Regenerative braking energy from the tram system was also utilized to further optimize energy production within the district. This system powers a middle school 10 houses a supermarket and the tram itself. Optimization techniques including Linear Programming (LP) for economic purposes and the Weighted Sum Method (WSM) for environmental goals were applied to balance cost and CO2 emissions. The LP method identified that the PED model can achieve cost competitiveness with conventional energy grids when hydrogen costs are below $93.16/MWh. Meanwhile the WSM approach demonstrated that achieving a minimal CO2 emission level of 5.74 tons requires hydrogen costs to be $32.55/MWh or lower. Compared to a conventional grid producing 97 tons of CO2 annually the PED model achieved reductions of up to 91.26 tons. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse on sustainable urban energy systems by addressing key research gaps related to the integration of mobility modes within PEDs and offering insights into the optimization of renewable energy sources for reducing emissions and energy consumption.

Low carbon hydrogen is essential to achieve the Government’s Clean Energy Superpower and Growth Missions. It will be a crucial enabler of a low carbon and renewables-based energy system and will help to deliver new clean energy industries which can support good jobs in our industrial heartlands and coastal communities. Hydrogen presents significant growth and economic opportunities across the UK by enhancing our energy security providing flexible cleaner energy for our power system and helping to decarbonise vital UK industries. Hydrogen has a critical role in helping to achieve our Clean Energy Superpower Mission. It can provide flexible low carbon power generation meaning we can use hydrogen to produce electricity during extended periods of low renewable output. Hydrogen can also provide interseasonal energy storage through conversion of electricity into hydrogen and then back into electricity at times of need using a combination of hydrogen production storage and hydrogen to power. To advance our Clean Energy and Growth Missions hydrogen also has a unique role in transitioning crucial UK industries away from oil and gas and towards a clean homegrown source of fuel. Hydrogen can decarbonise hard-to-abate sectors like chemicals and heavy transport complementing our wider electrification efforts and accelerating our progress to net zero. Using our strong domestic expertise and favourable geology geography and infrastructure backing UK hydrogen can unlock significant economic opportunities and new low carbon jobs of the future. Government has an ambitious range of policies in place to incentivise and support industry to invest in low carbon hydrogen. The recent Hydrogen Skills Workforce Assessment an industry-led study undertaken by the Hydrogen Skills Alliance estimated that the UK hydrogen economy could support 29000 direct jobs and 64500 indirect jobs by 2030. Since establishing in Summer 2024 this Government has already made significant progress in delivering the UK hydrogen economy. This includes confirming support for the 11 successful Hydrogen Allocation Round 1 projects announcing up to £21.7 billion of available funding to launch the UK’s new carbon capture utilisation and storage industry and publishing our hydrogen to power consultation response with an aim to establish a new hydrogen to power business model. We have also launched three new bodies – the National Energy System Operator Great British Energy and the National Wealth Fund – which will help to deliver a world-class energy system including for low carbon hydrogen. This December 2024 Hydrogen Strategy Update to the Market sets out the key milestones achieved by the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero in 2024 to deliver the hydrogen economy and an ambitious forward look at our next steps and upcoming opportunities. To achieve net zero and create a thriving and resilient energy landscape we are already working at considerable pace to deliver a world-leading UK hydrogen sector.