Policy & Socio-Economics

The North Sea Offshore Grid concept has been envisioned as a promising alternative to: 1) ease the integration of offshore wind and onshore energy systems and 2) increase the cross-border capacity between the North Sea region countries at low cost. In this paper we explore the techno-economic benefits of the North Sea Offshore Grid using two case studies: a power-based offshore grid where only investments in power assets are allowed (i.e. offshore wind HVDC/HVAC interconnectors); and a power-and-hydrogen offshore grid where investments in offshore hydrogen assets are also permitted (i.e. offshore electrolysers new hydrogen pipelines and retrofitted natural gas pipelines). In this paper we present a novel methodology in which extensive offshore spatial data is analysed to define meaningful regions via data clustering. These regions are incorporated to the Integrated Energy System Analysis for the North Sea region (IESA-NS) model. In this optimization model the scenarios are run without any specific technology ban and under open optimization. The scenario results show that the deployment of an offshore grid provides relevant cost savings ranging from 1% to 4.1% of relative cost decrease (2.3 bn € to 8.7 bn €) in the power-based and ranging from 2.8% to 7% of relative cost decrease (6 bn € to 14.9 bn €) in the power-and-hydrogen based. In the most extreme scenario an offshore grid permits to integrate 283 GW of HVDC connected offshore wind and 196 GW of HVDC meshed interconnectors. Even in the most conservative scenario the offshore grid integrates 59 GW of HVDC connected offshore wind capacity and 92 GW of HVDC meshed interconnectors. When allowed the deployment of offshore electrolysis is considerable ranging from 61 GW to 96 GW with capacity factors of around 30%.

This paper evaluates the potential of grid services in France Italy Norway and Spain to provide an alternative income for electrolysers producing hydrogen from wind power. Grid services are simulated with each country's data for 2017 for energy prices grid services and wind power profiles from relevant wind parks. A novel metric is presented the value of curtailed hydrogen which is independent from several highly uncertain parameters such as electrolyser cost or hydrogen market price. Results indicate that grid services can monetise the unused spare capacity of electrolyser plants improving their economy in the critical deployment phase. For most countries up-regulation yields a value of curtailed hydrogen above 6 V/kg over 3 times higher than the EU's 2030 price target (without incentives). However countries with large hydro power resources such as Norway yield far lower results below 2 V/kg. The value of curtailed hydrogen also decreases with hydrogen production corresponding to the cases of symmetric and down-regulation.

The Heads of Terms for the Low Carbon Hydrogen Agreement sets out the government’s proposal for the final hydrogen production business model design. It will form the basis of the Low Carbon Hydrogen Agreement the business model contract between the government appointed counterparty and a low carbon hydrogen producer.<br/>The business model will provide revenue support to hydrogen producers to overcome the operating cost gap between low carbon hydrogen and high carbon fuels. It has been designed to incentivise investment in low carbon hydrogen production and use and in doing so deliver the government’s ambition of up to 10GW of low carbon hydrogen production capacity by 2030.

The geographical understanding of directionality in the literature on mission-oriented innovation systems is still underdeveloped. Therefore this article reflects on whether the allocation of funding for R&D activities to different places can direct innovation systems in space. A placebased approach to the allocation of funding and its effects on innovation systems is developed to analyze how the German national government allocates funding to the national innovation system for hydrogen technologies. The results show that the allocation of funding considers placebased characteristics and has a range of systemic outcomes encompassing the clustering of research activities the specialization of certain places in certain market segments and the in crease of the spatial reach of the national innovation system by integrating left behind places. However the funding contributes insufficiently to market formation at the local and regional scale and is contested due to existing alternative routes that the innovation system could take.

Transformation concepts towards a low-carbon society often require new technology and infrastructure that evoke protests in the population. Therefore it is crucial to understand positions and conflicts in society to achieve social acceptance. This paper analyses these positions using the example of implementing hydrogen and carbon capture and storage infrastructure to decarbonise the German energy system. The empirical basis of the study are explorative stakeholder interviews which were conducted with experts from politics economics civil society and science and analysed within a discursive and attitudinal framework using qualitative content analysis. These stakeholder positions are assumed to represent dominant social perceptions and reflect chances and risks for acceptance. The results indicate different positions while pursuing the common goal of addressing climate change. The general conflict concerns strategies towards a low-carbon society especially the speed of phasing-out fossil energies. Regarding the combination of hydrogen and carbon capture and storage as instrument in the context of the energy transition the stakeholder interviews indicate controversial as well as consensual perceptions. The assessments range from rejection to deeming it absolutely necessary. Controversial argumentations refer to security of supply competitiveness and environmental protection. In contrast consensus can be reached by balancing ecological and economic arguments e.g. by linking hydrogen technologies with renewable and fossil energy sources or by limiting the use of carbon capture and storage only to certain applications (industry bioenergy). In further decisions this balancing of arguments combined with openness of technology transparency of information and citizen participation need to be considered to achieve broad acceptance.

For fast-tracking climate change response green hydrogen is key for achieving greenhouse gas neutral energy systems. Especially Sub-Saharan Africa can benefit from it enabling an increased access to clean energy through utilizing its beneficial conditions for renewable energies. However developing green hydrogen strategies for Sub-Saharan Africa requires highly detailed and consistent information ranging from technical environmental economic and social dimensions which is currently lacking in literature. Therefore this paper provides a comprehensive novel approach embedding the required range of disciplines to analyze green hydrogen costpotentials in Sub-Saharan Africa. This approach stretches from a dedicated land eligibility based on local preferences a location specific renewable energy simulation locally derived sustainable groundwater limitations under climate change an optimization of local hydrogen energy systems and a socio-economic indicator-based impact analysis. The capability of the approach is shown for case study regions in Sub-Saharan Africa highlighting the need for a unified interdisciplinary approach.

Morocco despite its heavy reliance on imported fossil fuels which made up 68% of electricity generation in 2020 has recognised its significant renewable energy potential. The Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) commitment is to reduce emissions by 45.5% from baseline levels with international assistance and abstain from constructing new coal plants. Moreover the Green Hydrogen Roadmap aims to export 10 TWh of green hydrogen by 2030 as well as use it for local electricity storage. This paper critically analyses this Roadmap and Morocco’s readiness to reach its ambitious targets focusing specifically on an energy trilemma perspective and using OSeMOSYS (Open-Source energy Modelling System) for energy modelling. The results reveal that the NDC scenario is only marginally more expensive than the least-cost scenario at around 1.3% (approximately USD 375 million) and facilitates a 23.32% emission reduction by 2050. An important note is the continued reliance on existing coal power plants across all scenarios which challenges both energy security and emissions. The assessment of the Green Hydrogen Scenarios highlights that it could be too costly for the Moroccan government to fund the Green Hydrogen Roadmap at this scale which leads to increased imports of polluting fossil fuels for cost reduction. In fact the emission levels are 39% higher in the green hydrogen exports scenario than in the least-cost scenario. Given these findings it is recommended that the Green Hydrogen Roadmap be re-evaluated with a suggestion for a postponement and reduction in scope.

This study introduces a multi-period integrated optimization model for designing a strategic hydrogen supply chain (HSC) network concentrating on the post-production stages of conditioning storage transportation and post-conditioning. Qatar serves as the case study for evaluating three HSC pathways—ammonia (as a hydrogen carrier) liquefied hydrogen and compressed hydrogen—across pre-conditioning storage shipping and postconditioning stages. The optimization framework spans a 20-year plan supporting strategic long-term hydrogen export infrastructure planning. Economic and environmental factors are incorporated to analyze HSC performance under various scenarios accounting for realistic constraints such as investment limits and emission caps. Key findings reveal trade-offs between pathways and design strategies that must account for balancing costs with environmental impacts. Results indicate that the ammonia pathway is preferred in scenarios without emission penalties but becomes less favorable with increased penalties shifting preference toward the liquified hydrogen pathway. With stringent emission limits short- and mid-range markets are prioritized underscoring the importance of emissions-conscious strategies. This study demonstrates the utility of optimi zation tools in balancing economic and environmental objectives offering policymakers and industry stake holders a robust framework for developing sustainable and efficient HSC networks.

In recent years production and supply of hydrogen has gained significant attention within the German energy transition. This is due to increasingly urgent pressures to mitigate climate change and geopolitical imperatives to substitute natural gas. Hydrogen is seen as an important cross-sectoral energy carrier serving multiple functions including heat production for industry and households fuel for transportation and energy storage for stabilization of electricity supply. In the context of various funding mechanisms on several administrative levels regional value chains for green hydrogen supply are emerging. To date however few studies analyzing regional hydrogen systems exist. Due to its high projected demand of energy sources for heating industrial processes and mobility Germany appears to be a very relevant research area in this emerging field. Situated within the concept of the multi-level perspective this article examines the way how regional “niches” of green hydrogen evolve and how they are organized. The study takes an evolutionary perspective in analyzing processes of embedding green hydrogen infrastructures in regional energy regimes which entered “re-configuration”-pathways. It argues that the congruence of available resources for renewable electricity established networks of institutional entrepreneurs and access to higher level funding are conditions which put incumbent regime-actors in favorable positions to implement green hydrogen niches. Conversely the embedding of green hydrogen infrastructures in regional energy systems is a case in point of how the attributes of niches in particular technological domains can be used to explain the transition pathway entered by a surrounding energy regime.

The increasing political momentum advocating for decarbonization efforts has led many governments around the world to unveil national hydrogen strategies. Hydrogen is viewed as a potential enabler of deep decarbonization notably in hard-to-abate sectors such as the industry. A multi-modal hourly resolved linear programming model was developed to assess the infrastructure requirements of a low-carbon supply chain over a large region. It optimizes the deployment of infrastructure from 2025 up to 2050 by assessing four years: 2025 2030 2040 and 2050 and is location agnostic. The considered infrastructure encompasses several technologies for production transmission and storage. Model results illustrate supply chain requirements in Texas and Louisiana. Edge cases considering 100% electrolytic production were analyzed. Results show that by 2050 with an assumed industrial demand of 276 TWh/year Texas and Louisiana would require 62 GW of electrolyzers 102 GW of onshore wind and 32 GW of solar panels. The resulting levelized cost of hydrogen totaled $5.6–6.3/kgH2 in 2025 decreasing to $3.2–3.5/ kgH2 in 2050. Most of the electricity production occurs in Northwest Texas thanks to high capacity factors for both renewable technologies. Hydrogen is produced locally and transmitted through pipelines to demand centers around the Gulf Coast instead of electricity being transmitted for electrolytic production co-located with demand. Large-scale hydrogen storage is highly beneficial in the system to provide buffer between varying electrolytic hydrogen production and constant industrial demand requirements. In a system without low-cost storage liquid and compressed tanks are deployed and there is a significant renewable capacity overbuild to ensure greater electrolyzer capacity factors resulting in higher electricity curtailment. A system under carbon constraint sees the deployment of natural gas-derived hydrogen production. Lax carbon constraint target result in an important reliance on this production method due to its low cost while stricter targets enforce a great share of electrolytic production.

Public perceptions might determine the ease of the transition from a fossil-based to a green hydrogen-based production pathway in the industrial sector. The primary objective of this paper is to empirically identify the antecedents of the acceptance of two relevant industrial applications of green hydrogen: green methanol and green steel. The analysis relying on linear regression models utilises survey data from samples of residents near a chemical park and a steel plant (509 and 502 participants respectively) contrasting them with a representative sample of 1502 individuals in Germany. The findings suggest that acceptance of the transitions to green methanol and green steel is high both locally and nationally. In all surveys >59 % of the participants are in favour while the share of those who are opposed to the respective transitions is below 9 %. Key antecedents of acceptance which are conducive in all models relate to individuals’ attitudes towards green hydrogen and perceptions of the legitimacy of the industry actors involved with varying results across legitimacy types. In general the findings were similar across industrial applications and across levels of observation but varied across regions. This study highlights the importance of civil society perceptions and suggests that relationship management efforts aimed at maintaining positive perceptions of industrial hydrogen applications should consider their broader physical and social contexts.

A lot of countries have recently published updated hydrogen strategies with many of them increasing and renewing their commitment. In parallel corresponding policy mechanisms are increasingly coming into focus with the first ones already having awarded funding contracts to projects and construction being underway. However these policies are usually translated from renewable energy policy without considering the specific risks and uncertainties spillovers and positive externality of operating grid-conducive electrolyzers in electricity grids which are increasingly subjected to electricity supply volatility from renewables. This article details how different aspects of a dedicated hydrogen policy can address the technology’s specific issues from an economic perspective namely funding provision market and technology risk mitigation and the complex relationship with further actors in electricity markets. Results show that compared to renewable energy policy mechanisms need to emphasize the input side more strongly as price risks and intermittency from electricity markets are more prominent than from hydrogen markets. Also it proposes a targeted mechanism to capture the positive externality of mitigating excess electricity in the grid while keeping investment security high. Economic policy should consider such approaches before scaling support and avoiding the design shortcomings experienced with early RE policy.

This review article critically examines papers on renewable energy integration (REI) with a specific focus on the economic and environmental impact assessments across multiple sectors including agriculture transportation electricity production buildings and biofuel production. A total of 111 articles from the Web of Science Core Collection database were reviewed using a systematic literature review methodology and content analysis techniques. The results indicate that evaluation-type studies particularly those employing optimization and simulation-based methods such as techno-economic analysis (TEA) (28 papers) and lifecycle assessment (LCA) (20 papers) were the most prominent approaches used for economic and environmental analyses. Optimization techniques such as mixed-integer linear programming (6 papers) genetic algorithms (GA) (5 papers) and particle swarm optimization (PSO) (4 papers) were widely applied. The quantitative analysis of impact assessment indicators shows that REI has yielded significant long-term positive results across multiple RE sources sectors and regions. A detailed examination of mathematical models (e.g. optimization techniques) and simulation modeling combined with lifecycle assessment (LCA) will assist future researchers in optimizing energy systems and enhancing sustainability in sectors such as agriculture and water desalination. The conceptual inclusion of circular economy within the research field needs to be more present among researchers and most of the studies focused on technical aspects of RE integration and assessing impacts rather than identifying a systemic change across the sectors. Several future research directions have been identified across sectors offering opportunities to advance the field. Policymakers will find this paper valuable for informed decision-making and the development of robust policy frameworks.

The Clean Energy Technology Research Institute (CETRI) at the University of Regina Canada serves as a collaborative hub where a dynamic team of researchers industry leaders innovators and educators come together to tackle the urgent challenges of climate change and the advancement of clean energy technologies. Specializing in low-carbon and carbon-free clean energy research CETRI adopts a unique approach that encompasses feasibility studies bench-scale and pilot-plant testing and pre-commercial demonstrations all consolidated under one roof. This holistic model distinguishes CETRI fostering a diverse and inclusive environment for technical scientific and hands-on learning experiences. With a CAD 3.3 million pre-commercial carbon capture demonstration plant capable of capturing 1 tonne of CO2 per day and a feed-flexible hydrogen demonstration pilot plant producing 6 kg of hydrogen daily CETRI emerges as a pivotal force in advancing innovative reliable and cost-competitive clean energy solutions essential for a safe prolific and sustainable world. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the diverse and impactful research carried out in the center spanning various areas including decarbonization zeroemission hydrogen technologies carbon (CO2 ) capture utilization and storage the conversion of waste into renewable fuels and chemicals and emerging technologies such as small modular nuclear reactors and microgrids.

In this latest OIES podcast James Henderson talks to Bill Farren-Price the new Head of the Gas Programme about some of Key Themes identified by OIES research fellows for 2024. After a review of the outcomes from 2023 we look at the oil and gas markets and discuss a common theme around the contrast between the fundamental tightness in both markets compared with the relative softness of prices. We then move onto a number of energy transition issues starting with some of the key actions from COP28 that need to be implemented in 2024 and following with a review of the outlook for carbon markets hydrogen developments and offshore wind. We also consider the impact of emerging competition between regions over green industrial policy. Finally we consider some of the key geopolitical drivers for 2024 with the influence of China being the most critical. However in an election year for so many countries it will be critical to follow the key policy announcements of the main candidates and of most critically the outcome of the US election in November.

The podcast can be found on their website

This study uses a multi-method design to investigate the media’s role in shaping Germans’ attitudes toward green hydrogen. It combines an automatized content analysis of 7649 German newspaper articles published between July 2021 and June 2024 and a three-wave panel survey of the German population conducted between June 2023 and June 2024 with an initial sample of 2701 participants. The findings show that the intensity of media reporting on hydrogen was low compared to other energy-related topics. Nevertheless participants’ assessments of relative topic presence are rather accurate (rho: 0.50–0.80). A considerable number of participants were unable to position themselves toward the potential and challenges of hydrogen (23%–35%). Overall the results indicate that media and communication tend to stabilize or change existing attitudes rather than contribute to the formation or loss of attitudes leading to implications for the communication of relevant stakeholders.

Inspired by the announcement of the new Hydrogen Strategy for the UK in 2021 this study aimed to determine how the oil and gas industry responds and adapts to the changes. This paper analyses qualitative and quantitative data from the companies’ annual and energy reports. Four oil and gas companies involved in hydrogen projects in the UK were selected as case studies. The responses from the companies were collected using the content analysis research strategy in 2019–2021. A steady increase was observed based on the code frequency reflecting the increasing discussions and actions the companies took regarding this hydrogen pathway. Although only one company appears to be at the forefront of this transition progress with a score of almost 90% based on the strategy management analysis other companies continue to demonstrate their commitment to supporting the national target.

Since the Industrial Revolution humanity has heavily depended on fossil fuels. Recognizing the negative environmental impacts of the unmoderated consumption of fossil fuels including global warming and consequent climate change new plans and initiatives have been established to implement renewable and sustainable energy sources worldwide. This has led to a rapid increase in the installed solar and wind energy capacity. However considering the fluctuating nature of these renewable energy sources green hydrogen has been proposed as a suitable energy carrier to improve the efficiency of energy production and storage. Thus green hydrogen produced by water electrolysis using renewable electricity is a promising solution for the future energy market. Moreover it has the potential to be used for the decarbonization of the heavy industry and transportation sectors. Research and development (R&D) on green hydrogen has grown considerably over the past few decades aiming to maximize production and expand its market share. The present work uses a SWOT (strengths weaknesses opportunities and threats) analysis to evaluate the current status of the green hydrogen market. The external and internal factors that affect its market position are assessed. The results show that green hydrogen is on the right track to becoming a competitive alternative to fossil fuels soon. Supported by environmental benefits government incentives and carbon taxes roadmaps to position green hydrogen on the energy map have been outlined. Nevertheless increased investments are required for further R&D as costs must be reduced and policies enforced. These measures will gradually decrease global dependency on fossil fuels and ensure that roadmaps are followed through.

Hydrogen is viewed as a potential energy solution for the 21st century with capabilities to tackle issues relating to environmental emissions sustainability energy shortages and security. Even though there are potential benefits of renewable hydrogen towards transitioning to net-zero emissions there is a limited study on the current use ongoing development and future directions of renewable hydrogen in Australia. Thus this study conducts a systematic review of studies for exploring Australia’s renewable hydrogen energy transition current trends strategies developments and future directions. By using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines earlier studies from 2005 to 2024 from two major databases such as ProQuest and Web of Science are gathered and analyzed. The study highlights significant issues relating to hydrogen energy technologies and opportunities/challenges in production storage distribution utilization and environmental impacts. The study found that Australia’s ambition for a strong hydrogen economy is made apparent with its clear strategic actions to develop a clean technology-based hydrogen production storage and distribution system. This study provides several practical insights on Australia’s hydrogen energy transition hydrogen energy technologies investments and innovation as well as strategies/recommendations for achieving a more environment friendly secure affordable and sustainable energy future.

Hydrogen presents the UK with a substantial opportunity to drive economic growth and secure skilled jobs by leveraging our natural geological and geographical advantages robust supply chain and existing energy expertise. Hydrogen UK’s most recent Economic Impact Assessment estimates that the hydrogen sector in the UK could support approximately 30000 direct jobs and contribute more than £7 billion gross value added annually by 2030. On a global scale the hydrogen market is projected to be worth $2.5 trillion by 2050.

With international competition increasing the UK must act now to capitalise on this potential. These projections are supported by a recognition that hydrogen is one of the key solutions to decarbonising the UK economy complementing other low-carbon solutions such as electrification carbon capture biofuels and energy efficiency. Additionally hydrogen will play a vital role in enhancing the UK’s energy security by storing domestically produced energy to balance intermittent renewable sources like wind and solar. As a critical component of the clean energy transition hydrogen is indispensable to achieving net zero.

As it stands the UK is well placed to capitalise on the hydrogen opportunity and emerge as a global leader. We have made early strides in establishing a framework for hydrogen development with various pilot projects and strategic investments already underway. However the next five years will be critical for the sector as we move from strategy and planning to development and delivery. It is imperative to get the first lowcarbon production projects over the line and into construction as a matter of urgency and then deliver substantial infrastructure development regulatory clarity and sustained financial support to scale-up production and distribution. A new Government presents an opportunity for policymakers to solidify commitments and accelerate the deployment of hydrogen technology ensuring the UK remains competitive in the global race.

Our manifesto outlines policy recommendations for the new UK Government to take across production distribution and storage infrastructure end use applications trade and beyond which will support a thriving British industrial base that creates jobs and growth for British people. To achieve this the UK hydrogen industry calls on policymakers to speed up the deployment of hydrogen through the recommendations set out in this Manifesto.

This report can be found on Hydrogen UK's website.

Hydrogen is one of the key solutions to decarbonising the UK economy along with other carbon abatement solutions such as electrification CCUS biofuels and energy efficiency. It provides a low carbon alternative to fossil fuels that has many of the same desirable features such as burning with a high temperature flame without producing carbon emissions during combustion. Hydrogen will be particularly valuable in hard-to-decarbonise sectors that have few cost-effective alternatives including elements of industry heavy transport and dispatchable power generation. However it’s use could be much more widespread depending on how costs preferences and policy for different low carbon solutions develop. The Government’s Hydrogen Strategy estimates that based on analysis from the Climate Change Committee (CCC) in 2050 between 20% and 35% of the UK’s final energy demand could be met with low carbon hydrogen1 . While hydrogen provides a promising solution to reducing emissions current deployment of low carbon hydrogen is low with almost all hydrogen in the UK produced from unabated fossil fuels resulting in high emissions. In the UK hydrogen production must meet the Low Carbon Hydrogen Standard (LCHS) to access government support. This is currently set at 20g CO2 e/MJ(LHV) and will ensure that future deployment will deliver significant emissions reductions when switching from fossil fuels2. The period to 2030 will be a critical time for the UK to seize the economic opportunity presented by low carbon hydrogen sector. Internationally increasing attention has been placed on hydrogen as a solution to global emissions. In the USA the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) has provided fixed rate tax credits of up to $3/kg (£2.4/kgII) for clean hydrogen production3. Closer to home the EU is targeting 10 million tonnes of domestic electrolytic production and an additional 10 million tonnes of electrolytic hydrogen imports by 20304. This will be achieved through a variety of policy levers including an auction for fixed price subsidy support for electrolytic production with a ceiling of €4.5/kg5 (£3.84/kgIII). In the UK Government have set an ambitious target of up to 10 GW of low carbon hydrogen production by 2030 with at least half of this from electrolytic sources6. This will be supported by the Hydrogen Production Business Model (HPBM) a two-way variable CfD which could potentially provide hydrogen for a price as low as the natural gas price7 . As global supply chains investment and skills are in international competition the UK must continue its ambitious hydrogen aspirations to ensure the decarbonisation and economic opportunity presented by low carbon hydrogen is captured. This study estimates the economic impact of the low carbon hydrogen sector in the UK by 2030. The impact is assessed by estimating the costs of hydrogen deployment and applying employment and GVA multipliers to these costs based on historic economic activity. These estimates are broken down by different forms of low carbon hydrogen production and end use as well as the enabling infrastructure required to connect production and demand namely hydrogen networks and storage. Both the employment and GVA are estimated for each of these value chain elements for every year between 2024 and 2030. Employment and economic growth from the hydrogen sector will be created across the UK with many benefits arising in regions that have faced historic underinvestment such as the industrial clusters and Scotland. Beyond the high-level economic benefits estimated in this study the hydrogen sector creates an opportunity for the hundreds of thousands oil and gas sector jobs in the UK to transition to a low carbon alternative.

This report can be found on Hydrogen UK's website.

This report explores how hydrogen could be taken up in the UK and how this in turn translates to each sector from both global and UK perspectives to understand the practical implications of global and UK targets and projections on hydrogen innovation opportunities:

♦ Assessing demand for hydrogen sets out the context and the approach taken in the assessment of global and UK sector hydrogen needs including the development of specific UK scenarios for hydrogen deployment and innovation across the energy system and supply chain.

♦ Key insights discusses the insights and an overview of the outputs from the implementation of the UK deployment scenarios in whole energy system modelling.

♦ Hydrogen production storage and distribution and demand explore these areas in more detail setting out the current state and potential trajectories for hydrogen in each sector both globally and in the UK up to 2050.

This report can also be downloaded free on the Hydrogen Innovation Initative website.

Future pathways for Great Britain’s energy system decarbonization have highlighted the importance of lowcarbon hydrogen as an energy carrier and demand flexibility support. However the potential application within various sectors (heating industry transport) and production capacity through different technologies (methane reformation with carbon capture biomass gasification electrolysis) is highly varying introducing substantial uncertainties for hydrogen infrastructure development. This study sets out infrastructure priorities and identifies locational flexibility for hydrogen supply and demand options. Advances on limitations of previous research are made by developing an open-source model of the hydrogen system of Great Britain based on three Net Zero scenarios set out by National Grid in their Future Energy Scenarios in high temporal and spatial resolution. The model comprehensively covers demand sectors and supply options in addition to extending the locational considerations of the Future Energy Scenarios. This study recommends prioritizing the establishment of green hydrogen hubs in the near-term aligning with demands for synthetic fuels production industry and power which can facilitate the subsequent roll out of up to 10GW of hydrogen production capacity by 2050. The analysis quantifies a high proportion of hydrogen supply and demand which can be located flexibly.

Chapters:<br/>♦ Introduction by Rainer Quitzow and Yana Zabanova<br/>♦ The EU in the Global Hydrogen Race: Bringing Together Climate Action Energy Security and Industrial Policy by Yana Zabanova<br/>♦ Germany’s Hydrogen Strategy: Securing Industrial Leadership in a Carbon–Neutral Economy by Almudena Nunez and Rainer Quitzow<br/>♦ France’s Hydrogen Strategy: Focusing on Domestic Hydrogen Production to Decarbonise Industry and Mobility by Ines Bouacida<br/>♦ International Dimension of the Polish Hydrogen Strategy. Conditions and Potential for Future Development by Michał Smoleń and Wojciech Żelisko<br/>♦ Hydrogen Affairs in Hungary’s Politically Confined Ambition byJohn Szabo<br/>♦ Spain’s Hydrogen Ambition: Between Reindustrialisation and Export-Led Energy Integration with the EU by Ignacio Urbasos and Gonzalo Escribano<br/>♦  Italian Hydrogen Policy: Drivers Constraints and Recent Developments by Andrea Prontera<br/>♦  Hydrogen Policy in the Netherlands: Laying the Foundations for a Scalable Hydrogen Value Chain by Roelof Stam Coby van der Linde and Pier Stapersma<br/>♦ Hydrogen Strategy of Sweden: Unpacking the Multiple Drivers and Potential Barriers to Hydrogen Development by Stefan Ćetković and Janek Stockburger<br/>♦  Norway’s Hydrogen Strategy: Unveiling Green Opportunities and Blue Export Ambitions by Jon Birger Skjærseth Per Ove Eikeland Tor Håkon Jackson Inderberg and Mari Lie Larsen<br/>♦ The Geopolitics of Hydrogen in Europe: The Interplay between EU and Member State Policies by Rainer Quitzow and Yana Zabanova

Transitioning from carbon-intensive steam methane reforming to low-carbon hydrogen production is essential for decarbonizing the European industrial sector. However the employment impact of such a transition remains unclear. Here we estimate the effects using a transition pathways optimization model and industrial survey data. The results show that an electrolysis-based hydrogen sector transition would create 40000 jobs in the hydrogen sector by 2050. However these jobs are not equally distributed with Western Europe hosting the largest share (40%) and 20% of current hydrogen-producing regions experiencing net job decreases. Even after accounting for renewable energy jobs created by electrolysis-driven electricity demand growth the 2050 low-carbon hydrogen workforce would provide only 10% of the jobs currently offered by European fossil fuel production. Numerous uncertainties and regional development inequities suggest the need for sector-diversified workforce transition plans and training programs to foster skills suited to multiple low-carbon opportunities.

Importing substantial amount of green hydrogen from countries like South Africa which have abundant solar and wind potentials to replace fossil fuels has attracted interest in developed regions. This study analyses South African strategies for improving and decarbonizing the power sector while also producing hydrogen for export. These strategies include the Integrated Resource Plan the Transmission Development Plan Just Energy Transition and Hydrogen Society Roadmap for grid connected hydrogen production in 2030. Results based on an hourly resolution optimisation in Plexos indicate that annual grid-connected hydrogen production of 500 kt can lead to a 20–25% increase in the cost of electricity in scenarios with lower renewable energy penetration due to South African emission constraints by 2030. While the price of electricity is still in acceptable range and the price of hydrogen can be competitive on the international market (2–3 USD/kgH2 for production) the emission factor of this hydrogen is higher than the one of grey hydrogen ranging from 13 to 24 kgCO2/kgh2. When attempting to reach emission factors based on EU directives the three policy roadmaps become unfeasible and free capacity expansion results in significant sixteen-fold increase of wind and seven-fold increase in solar installations compared to 2023 levels by 2030 in South Africa.

Many developing countries seek to participate in the emerging global green hydrogen industry not only as exporters of green hydrogen and its derivatives to Europe and the Far East but also to use it for their own energy security and green transition. They hope that new development paths will lead to late-comer industrialisation. This article assesses corresponding prospects in Chile and Namibia two countries that pursue particularly ambitious plans on green hydrogen. To better understand the chances for path creation ex ante the authors draft an innovative framework that refers to context factors – that is structure – and three types of transformative agency. Against the backdrop of information from secondary sources and a series of expert interviews they uncover sound institutional reforms and initiatives of place-based leadership to promote the green hydrogen industry. However Chile and Namibia lack Schumpeterian entrepreneurship. It therefore remains to be seen whether new development paths will be inclusive contributing to in-country development. Typical downsides of extractive industries in resource peripheries might occur.

This report lays out roadmaps for the nine technology families identified in the UK Hydrogen Innovation Opportunity. The content in these roadmaps has been developed through a combination of extensive industrial engagement and aggregation of existing sector and technology roadmaps. This document also signposts to reports that highlight innovation challenges and opportunities for two underpinning technology families - materials and digital. The technology roadmaps in this document each include the following:

♦ UK and global market forecast for 2030 and 2050 for the respective technology family.

♦ Key technologies that make up the technology family.

♦ The associated innovation opportunities associated with each key technology together with development and industrialisation timelines and the sectors that will benefit from the innovation.

The list of innovation opportunities on each roadmap is by no means exhaustive but they are a sample that were selected because they highlighted some key innovation actions for the UK. To make this selection a range of factors were considered including global and UK economic demand the UK political imperative and UK potential to win market share. The development and industrialisation timelines are recommendations only and do not signify that this work is already planned or funded.

This report can also be downloaded for free on the Hydrogen Innovation Initiative website.

Purpose: The Training section of the Education and Training module of the FCHO offers a repository of training available in Europe. In addition to the training programmes Educational materials which are publicly accessible online are also available to access on the FCHO. https://www.fchobservatory.eu/observatory/education-and-training Scope: The training courses are displayed by location within a map and users can explore the data by selecting the type of training of interest. Two additional filters on the language and the focus of the training are available to refine the search according to user needs. Users of the online tool can be students professionals and individuals wishing to learn and be trained on FCH. To complement this mapping a repository of online resources is accessible on the FCHO. Users may retrieve reliable materials available for self-learning. Key Findings: Master programmes and professional training courses were the most mapped categories. There is a prevalence of training courses offered by Western European countries in the mapping. The majority of the training courses mapped are targeted at technicians engineers and doctorate. For Bachelor and Master programmes FCH is more often an element integrated in a programme than its main focus. “Hydrogen Production” and “Hydrogen end-uses: transports” were the most selected focus of courses among the 11 categories proposed. “Regulations Codes and Standards” was the least selected focus with only one training out of five tackling these aspects. Professional training is more often focusing on end-uses and safety than Master programmes. Master programmes put a strong emphasis on “Basic electrochemistry” “Hydrogen production”. European projects are the main source for publicly accessible materials to learn on FCH. Most of the materials listed are available in English. “Hydrogen End-Uses” is the focus category the most common in the materials listed.

Purpose: The technology and market module of the FCHO presents a range of statistical data as an indicator of the health of the sector and the progress in market development over time. https://www.fchobservatory.eu/observatory/technology-and-market Scope: Fuel cell shipment data is presented on a global basis. Other sections of the technology and market chapter (HRS data and FCEV data) are presented on a European basis. The report spans January 2020 – December 2020. Key Findings: COVID-19 has without doubt impacted the deployment of fuel cells and hydrogen in 2020 compared to industry expectations: Global Fuel Cell shipments > 1.3 GW Europe Fuel Cell shipments up to 148.6 MW Europe HRS in operation or under construction 162 FCEVs up 41% to 2774

The role of negative emissions technologies (NETs) in climate change mitigation remains contentious. Although numerous studies indicate significant carbon dioxide removal (CDR) requirements for Paris Agreement mitigation goals to be achieved others point out challenges and risks associated with high CDR strategies. Using a multiscale modeling approach we explore NETs’ potential for a single country the United Kingdom (UK). Here we report that the UK has cost-effective potential to remove 79 MtCO2 per year by 2050 rising to 126–134 MtCO2 per year with well-integrated NETs in industrial clusters. Results highlight that biomass gasification for hydrogen generation with CCS is emerging as a key NET despite biomass availability being a limiting factor. Moreover solid DACCS systems utilizing industrial waste heat integration offer a solution to offsetting increases in demand from transportation and industrial sectors. These results emphasize the importance of a multiscale whole-systems assessment for integrating NETs into industrial strategies.

Countries around the world are prioritising net zero emissions to meet their Paris Agreement goals. The demand for social impact assessment (SIA) is likely to grow as this transition will require investments in decarbonisation projects with speed and at scale. There will be winners and losers of these projects because not everyone benefits the same; and hence trade-offs are inevitable. SIAs therefore should focus on understanding how the risks and benefits will be distributed among and within stakeholders and sectors and enable the identification of trade-offs that are just and fair. In this study we used a hypothetical case of large-scale hydrogen production in regional Australia and engaged with multi-disciplinary experts to identify justice issues in transitioning to such an industry. Using Rawlsian theory of justice as fairness we identified several tensions between different groups (national regional local inter and intra-communities) and sectors (environmental and economic) concerning the establishment of a hydrogen industry. These stakeholders and sectors will be disproportionately affected by this establishment. We argue that Rawlsian principles of justice would enable the practice of SIA to identify justice trade-offs. Further we conceptualise that a systems approach will be critical to facilitate a wider participation and an agile process for achieving just trade-offs in SIA.

Green hydrogen is set to become the energy carrier of the future provided that production technologies such as electrolysis and solar water splitting can be scaled to global dimensions. Testing these hydrogen technologies on the MW scale requires the development of dedicated new test facilities for which there is no precedent. This perspective highlights the challenges to be met on the path to implementing a test facility for large-scale water electrolysis photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic water splitting and aims to serve as a much-needed blueprint for future test facilities based on the authors’ own experience in establishing the Hydrogen Lab Leuna. Key aspects to be considered are the electricity and utility requirements of the devices under testing the analysis of the produced H2 and O2 and the safety regulations for handling large quantities of H2 . Choosing the right location is crucial not only for meeting these device requirements but also for improving financial viability through supplying affordable electricity and providing a remunerated H2 sink to offset the testing costs. Due to their lower TRL and requirement for a light source large-scale photocatalysis and photoelectrochemistry testing are less developed and the requirements are currently less predictable.

Purpose: The standards module of the FCHO presents a large number of standards relevant for the deployment of hydrogen and fuel cells. The standards are categorized per application enhancing ease of access and findability. The development of sector-relevant standards facilitate and enhance economies of scale interoperability comparability safety and many other issues. https://www.fchobservatory.eu/observatory/Policy-and-RCS/Standards Scope: This report presents the developments in European and international standards for the year 2020.Standards from the following standards developing organizations are included: CEN CENELEC ISO IEC OIML. Key Findings: The development of sector relevant standards on an international level continued to grow in 2020; on a European level many standards are still in the process of being drafted. In 2020 12 new standards have been published mainly on the subject of fuel cell technologies. The recently established committee CEN-CLC JTC 6 (Hydrogen in energy systems) has not published standards yet but is working on drafting standards on for example Guarantees of Origin. Previous Reports The first report was published in September 2020. This report is the 2nd Annual report.

The increasing urgency with which climate change must be addressed has led to an unprecedented level of interest in hydrogen as a clean energy carrier. Much of the analysis of hydrogen until this point has focused predominantly on hydrogen production. This paper aims to address this by developing a flexible techno-economic analysis (TEA) tool that can be used to evaluate the potential of future scenarios where hydrogen is produced stored and distributed within a region. The tool takes a full year of hourly data for renewables availability and dispatch down (the sum of curtailment and constraint) wholesale electricity market prices and hydrogen demand as well as other user-defined inputs and sizes electrolyser capacity in order to minimise cost. The model is applied to a number of case studies on the island of Ireland which includes Ireland and Northern Ireland. For the scenarios analysed the overall LCOH ranges from V2.75e3.95/kgH2. Higher costs for scenarios without access to geological storage indicate the importance of cost-effective storage to allow flexible hydrogen production to reduce electricity costs whilst consistently meeting a set demand.

With the adoption of the EU Climate Law in 2021 the EU has set itself a binding target to achieve climate neutrality by 2050 and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55 percent compared to 1990 levels by 2030. To support the increased ambition the EU Commission adopted proposals for revising the key directives and regulations addressing energy efficiency renewable energies and greenhouse gas emissions in the Fit for 55 package. The heating and cooling (H&C) sector plays a key role for reaching the EU energy and climate targets. H&C accounts for about 50 percent of the final energy consumption in the EU and the sector is largely based on fossil fuels. In 2021 the share of renewable energies in H&C reached 23%.

This study assessed the feasibility of integrating a green hydrogen value chain into the local industry examining two case studies by comparing four scenarios. The optimization focused on generating electricity from stationary renewable sources such as solar or through Power Purchase Agreements to produce sufficient hydrogen in electrolyzers. Current demand profiles renewable participation targets electricity supply sources levelized costs of energy and hydrogen and technology options were considered. The most cost-effective scenario showed a levelized cost of energy of 0.032 and 0.05 US$/kWh and a hydrogen cost below 1.0 US$/kgH2 for cases 1 and 2 respectively. A sensitivity analysis highlighted the critical influence of fuel cell technology on cost modification underscoring the importance of focusing cost reduction strategies on these technologies to enhance the economic viability of the green hydrogen value chain. Specifically a high sensitivity towards reducing the levelized costs of energy and hydrogen in the port sector with adjustments in fuel cell technology costs was identified indicating the need for specific policies and supports to facilitate their adoption.

As the world moves to clean renewable energy questions arise as to how best to produce and use hydrogen. Here we propose using hydrogen produced only by electrolysis with clean renewable electricity (green hydrogen). We then test the impact of producing such hydrogen intermittently versus continuously for steel and ammonia manufacturing and long-distance transport via fuel cells on the cost of matching electricity heat cold and hydrogen demand with supply and storage on grids worldwide. An estimated 79 32 and 91 Tg-H2/y of green hydrogen are needed in 2050 among 145 countries for steel ammonia and long-distance transport respectively. Producing and compressing such hydrogen for these processes may consume ~12.1% of the energy needed for end-use sectors in these countries after they transition to 100% wind-water-solar (WWS) in all such sectors. This is less than the energy needed for fossil fuels to power the same processes. Due to the variability of WWS electricity producing green hydrogen intermittently rather than continuously thus with electrolyzer use factors significantly below unity (0.2–0.65) may reduce overall energy costs with 100% WWS. This result is subject to model uncertainties but appears robust. In sum grid operators should incorporate intermittent green hydrogen production and use in planning.

Globally a green hydrogen economy rush is underway and many companies investors governments and environmentalists consider it as an energy source that could foster the global energy transition. The enormous potential for hydrogen production for domestic use and export places Africa in the spotlight in the green hydrogen economy discourse. This discourse remains unsettled regarding how natural resources such as land and water can be sustainably utilized for such a resource-intensive project and what implications this would have. This review argues that green hydrogen production (GHP) in Africa has consequences where land resources (and their associated natural resources) are concerned. It discusses the current trends in GHP in Africa and the possibilities for reducing any potential pressures it may put on land and other resource use on the continent. The approach of the review is interpretive and hinges on answering three questions concerning the what why and how of GHP and its land consequences in Africa. The review is based on 41 studies identified from Google Scholar and sources identified via snowballed recommendations from experts. The GHP implications identified relate to land and water use mining-related land stress and environmental ecological and land-related socioeconomic consequences. The paper concludes that GHP may not foster the global energy transition as is being opined by many renewable energy enthusiasts but rather could help foster this transition as part of a greener energy mix. It notes that African countries that have the potential for GHP require the institutionalization of or a change in their existing approaches to land-related energy governance systems in order to achieve success.

Hydrogen will be important in decarbonized energy systems. The primary ways to produce low emission hydrogen are from renewable electricity using electrolyzers called green hydrogen and by reforming natural gas and capturing and storing the CO2 known as blue hydrogen. In this study the degrees to which blue and green hydrogen are complementary or competitive are analyzed through a sensitivity analysis on the electrolyzer costs and natural gas price. This analysis is performed on four bases: what is the cost-effective relative share between blue and green hydrogen deployment how their deployment influences the price of hydrogen how the price of CO2 changes with the deployment of these two technologies and whether infrastructure can economically be shared between these two technologies. The results show that the choice of green and blue hydrogen has a tremendous impact where an early deployment of green leads to higher hydrogen costs and CO2 prices in 2030. Allowing for blue hydrogen thus has notable benefits in 2030 giving cheaper hydrogen with smaller wider socioeconomic impacts. In the long term these competitive aspects disappear and green and blue hydrogen can coexist in the European market without negatively influencing one another.

Hydrogen is widely considered as the energy carrier of the future but the rather high energy losses for its production are often neglected. The major current hydrogen production technology is steam methane reforming of fossil gas but there is a growing interest in producing hydrogen sustainably from water using electrolysis. This article examines four main hydrogen production chains and two transportation options (pipeline and ship) from North Africa to Europe analyzing the costs and environmental impacts of each. The core objective is to determine the most promising hydrogen provision method and location from an economic and ecological point of view including the required transport. An important finding of this analysis is that both options importing green hydrogen and producing it in Europe may be relevant for a decarbonized energy system. The emphasis should be on green hydrogen to achieve carbon emission reductions. If blue hydrogen is also considered attention should be paid to the often-neglected methane emissions upstream.

Hydrogen Economy and Cyclic Economy are advocated together with the use of perennial (solar wind hydro geo-power SWHG) and renewable (biomass) energy sources for defossilizing anthropic activities and mitigating climate change. Each option has intrinsic limits that prevent a stand-alone success in reaching the target. Humans have recycled goods (metals water paper and now plastics) to a different extent since very long time. Recycling carbon (which is already performed at the industrial level in the form of CO2 utilization and with recycling paper and plastics) is a key point for the future. The conversion of CO2 into chemicals and materials is carried out since the late 1800s (Solvay process) and is today performed at scale of 230 Mt/y. It is time to implement on a scale of several Gt/y the conversion of CO2 into energy products possibly mimicking Nature which does not use hydrogen. In the short term a few conditions must be met to make operative on a large scale the production of fuels from recycled-C namely the availability of low-cost: i. abundant pure concentrated streams of CO2 ii. non-fossil primary energy sources and iii. non-fossil-hydrogen. The large-scale production of hydrogen by Methane Steam Reforming with CO2 capture (Blue-H2) seems to be a realistic and sustainable solution. Green-H2 could in principle be produced on a large scale through the electrolysis of water powered by perennial primary sources but hurdles such as the availability of materials for the construction of long-living robust electrochemical cells (membranes electrodes) must be abated for a substantial scale-up with respect to existing capacity. The actual political situation makes difficult to rely on external supplies. Supposed that cheap hydrogen will be available its direct use in energy production can be confronted with the indirect use that implies the hydrogenation of CO2 into fuels (E-fuels) an almost ready technology. The two strategies have both pros and cons and can be integrated. E-Fuels can also represent an option for storing the energy of intermittent sources. In the medium-long term the direct co-processing of CO2 and water via co-electrolysis may avoid the production/transport/ use of hydrogen. In the long term coprocessing of CO2 and H2O to fuels via photochemical or photoelectrochemical processes can become a strategic technology.

Hydrogen is a versatile energy carrier which can be produced from variety of feedstocks stored and transported in various forms for multi-functional end-uses in transportation energy and manufacturing sectors. Several regional national and supra-national climate policy frameworks emphasize the need value and importance of Fuel cell and Hydrogen (FCH) technologies for deep and sector-wide decarbonization. Despite these multi-faceted advantages familiar and proven FCH technologies such as alkaline electrolysis and proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) often face economic technical and societal barriers to mass-market adoption. There is no single unified standardized and globally harmonized normative definition of costs. Nevertheless the discussion and debates surrounding plausible candidates and/or constituents integral for assessing the economics and value proposition of status-quo as well as developmental FCH technologies are steadily increasing—Life Cycle Costing (LCC) being one of them if not the most important outcome of such exercises.<br/>To that end this review article seeks to improve our collective understanding of LCC of FCH technologies by scrutinizing close to a few hundred publications drawn from representative databases—SCOPUS and Web of Science encompassing several tens of technologies for production and select transportation storage and end-user utilization cases. This comprehensive review forms part of and serves as the basis for the Clean Hydrogen Partnership funded SH2E project whose ultimate goal is the methodical development a formal set of principles and guardrails for evaluating the economic environmental and social impacts of FCH technologies. Additionally the SH2E projects will also facilitate the proper comparison of different FCH technologies whilst reconciling range of technologies methodologies modelling assumptions and parameterization found in existing literature.

Hydrogen energy technologies are forecasted to play a critical supporting role in global decarbonisation efforts as reflected by the growth of national hydrogen energy strategies in recent years. Notably the UK government published its Hydrogen Strategy in August 2021 to support decarbonisation targets and energy security ambitions. While establishing techno-economic feasibility for hydrogen energy systems is a prerequisite of the prospective transition social acceptability is also needed to support visions for the ‘hydrogen economy’. However to date societal factors are yet to be embedded into policy prescriptions. Securing social acceptance is especially critical in the context of ‘hydrogen homes’ which entails replacing natural gas boilers and hobs with low-carbon hydrogen appliances. Reflecting the nascency of hydrogen heating and cooking technologies the dynamics of social acceptance are yet to be explored in a comprehensive way. Similarly public perceptions of the hydrogen economy and emerging national strategies remain poorly understood. Given the paucity of conceptual and empirical insights this study develops an integrated acceptance framework and tests its predictive power using partial least squares structural equation modelling. Results highlight the importance of risk perceptions trust dynamics and emotions in shaping consumer perceptions. Foremost prospects for deploying hydrogen homes at scale may rest with coupling renewable-based hydrogen production to local environmental and socio-economic benefits. Policy prescriptions should embed societal factors into the technological pursuit of large-scale sustainable energy solutions to support socially acceptable transition pathways.

This manuscript explores the role of green hydrogen produced through ethanol reforming in accelerating Brazil’s transition to a low-carbon economic framework. Despite ongoing efforts to lessen carbon dependence Brazil’s reliance on biofuels and other renewable energy sources remains inadequate for fully achieving its decarbonization objectives. Green hydrogen presents a vital opportunity to boost energy sustainability especially in sectors that are challenging to decarbonize such as industry and transportation. By analyzing Brazil’s input–output (I-O) table using data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) this study evaluates the macroeconomic potential of green hydrogen focusing on GDP growth and employment generation. Furthermore the research explores green hydrogen systems’ economic feasibility and potential impact on future energy policies offering valuable insights for stakeholders and decision-makers. In addition this investigation highlights Brazil’s abundant renewable resources and identifies the infrastructural investments necessary to support a green hydrogen economy. The findings aim to strengthen Brazil’s national decarbonization strategy and serve as a model for other developing nations transitioning to clean energy.

Converting renewable electricity via water electrolysis into green hydrogen and hydrogen-based products will shape a global trade in power-to-x (PtX) products. The European Union's renewable hydrogen import target of 10 million tonnes by 2030 reflects the urgent need for PtX imports by sea to early high-demand countries like Germany. This study evaluates the cost efficiency and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of four hydrogen carrier ship import options considering a reconversion to H2 at the import terminal for a final delivery to offtakers via a H2 pipeline network in 2030. This includes ammonia a liquid organic hydrogen carrier (LOHC) system based on benzyltoluene (BT) and a novel CO2/e-methane and CO2/e-methanol cycle where CO2 is captured at the reconversion plant and then shipped back to the PtX production site in a nearly closed carbon loop. The GHG emission accounting includes well-to-wake emissions of the marine fuels and direct emissions of the carbon capture plant. Two GW-scale case studies reveal the impact of a short and long-distance route from Tunisia and Australia to Germany whereas the specific PtX carriers are either fuelled by its PtX cargo as a renewable marine fuel or by conventional heavy fuel oil (HFO). Ammonia outperforms the other PtX routes as the total hydrogen supply cost range between 5.07 and 7.69 for Australia (low: NH3 HFO high: LOHC HFO) and 4.78–6.21 € per kg H2 for Tunisia (low: NH3 HFO high: CH4 HFO) respectively. The ammonia routes achieve thereby GHG intensities of 31 % and 86 % below the EU threshold of 3.4 kg CO2(e) per kg H2 for renewable hydrogen. LOHC though unless switching to low-emission fuels and the CO2/e-methanol cycle exceed the GHG threshold at shipping distances of 12300 and 16600 km. The hydrogen supply efficiencies vary between 57.9 and 78.8 %LHV (low: CH4 PtX-fuelled high: NH3 HFO) with a PtX marine fuel consumption of up to 15 % LHV for the Australian methanol route whereas high uncertainties remain for the ammonia and methanol reconversion plant efficiencies. The CO2 cyle enables a cost-efficient CO2 supply easing the near-term shortage of climate-neutral CO2 sources at the cost of high GHG emissions for long-distance routes.

This work investigates how to balance the electricity supply and demand in a carbon-neutral northern Europe. Applying a cost-minimizing electricity system model including options to invest in eleven different flexibility measures and cost-efficient combinations of strategies to manage variations were identified. The results of the model were post-processed using a novel method to map the net load before and after flexibility measures were applied to reveal the contribution of each flexibility measure. The net load was mapped in the space spanned by the amplitude duration and number of occurrences. The mapping shows that depending on cost structure flexibility measures contribute to reduce the net load in three different ways; (1) by reducing variations with a long duration but low amplitude (2) by reducing variations with a high amplitude but short duration and low occurrence or (3) by reducing variations with a high amplitude short duration and high occurrence. It was found that cost-efficient variation management was achieved by combining wind and solar power and by combining strategies (1–3) to manage the variations. The cost-efficient combination of strategies depends on electricity system context where electricity trade flexible hydrogen and heat production (1) manage the majority of the variations in regions with good conditions for wind power while stationary batteries (3) were the main contributors in regions with good conditions for solar power.

Hydrogen (H2) as an energy carrier may play a role in various hard-to-abate subsectors but to maximize emission reductions supplied hydrogen must be reliable low-emission and low-cost. Here we build a model that enables direct comparison of the cost of producing net-zero hourly-reliable hydrogen from various pathways. To reach net-zero targets we assume upstream and residual facility emissions are mitigated using negative emission technologies. For the United States (California Texas and New York) model results indicate nextdecade hybrid electricity-based solutions are lower cost ($2.02-$2.88/kg) than fossil-based pathways with natural gas leakage greater than 4% ($2.73-$5.94/ kg). These results also apply to regions outside of the U.S. with a similar climate and electric grid. However when omitting the net-zero emission constraint and considering the U.S. regulatory environment electricity-based production only achieves cost-competitiveness with fossil-based pathways if embodied emissions of electricity inputs are not counted under U.S. Tax Code Section 45V guidance.

Hydrogen is envisioned to become a fundamental energy vector for the decarbonization of energy systems. Two key factors that will define the success of hydrogen are its sustainability and competitiveness with alternative solutions. One of the many challenges for the proliferation of hydrogen is the creation of a sustainable supply chain. In this study a methodology aimed at assessing the economic feasibility of holistic hydrogen supply chains is developed. Based on the designed methodology a tool which calculates the levelized cost of hydrogen for the different stages of its supply chain: production transmission & distribution storage and conversion is proposed. Each stage is evaluated individually combining relevant technical and economic notions such as learning curves and scaling factors. Subsequently the findings from each stage are combined to assess the entire supply chain as a whole. The tool is then applied to evaluate case studies of various supply chains including large-scale remote and small-scale distributed green hydrogen supply chains as well as conventional steam methane reforming coupled with carbon capture and storage technologies. The results show that both green hydrogen supply chains and conventional methods can achieve a competitive LCOH of around €4/kg in 2030. However the key contribution of this study is the development of the tool which provides a foundation for a comprehensive evaluation of hydrogen supply chains that can be continuously improved through the inputs of additional users and further research on one or more of the interconnected stages.

A key building block of the European Green Deal is the development of a hydrogen commodity market which requires a suitable hydrogen market design and the timely introduction of related policy measures. Using exploratory interviews with five expert groups we contribute to this novel research field by outlining the core market design criteria and proposing suitable regulations for the future European hydrogen market. We identify detailed recommendations along three core market design focus areas: Market development policy measures infrastructure regulations as well as hydrogen and certificate trading. Our findings provide an across-industry view of current policy-related key challenges in the hydrogen commodity market development and mitigation approaches. We therefore support policymakers within the EU in the ongoing detailing of their regulatory hydrogen and green energy packages. Further we promote hydrogen market development by assisting current and future industry players in finding a common understanding of the future hydrogen market design.