Policy & Socio-Economics

In response to the urgent need to mitigate climate change via net-zero targets many nations are renewing their interest in clean hydrogen as a net-zero energy carrier. Although clean hydrogen can be directly used in various sectors for deep decarbonization the relatively low energy density and high production costs have raised doubts as to whether clean hydrogen development is worthwhile. Here we improve on the GCAM model by including a more comprehensive and detailed representation of clean hydrogen production distribution and demand in all sectors of the global economy and simulate 25 scenarios to explore the costeffectiveness of integrating clean hydrogen into the global energy system. We show that due to costly technical obstacles clean hydrogen can only provide 3%–9% of the 2050 global final energy use. Nevertheless clean hydrogen deployment can reduce overall energy decarbonization costs by 15%–22% mainly via powering ‘‘hard-to-electrify’’ sectors that would otherwise face high decarbonization expenditures. Our work provides practical references for cost-effective clean hydrogen planning.

Hydrogen’s wide availability and versatile production methods establish it as a primary green energy source driving substantial interest among the public industry and governments due to its future fuel potential. Notable investment is directed toward hydrogen research and material innovation for transmission storage fuel cells and sensors. Ensuring safe and dependable hydrogen facilities is paramount given the challenges in accident control. Addressing material compatibility issues within hydrogen systems remains a critical focus. Challenges roadmaps and scenarios steer long-term planning and technology outlooks. Strategic visions align actions and policies encompassing societal and ecological dimensions. The confluence of hydrogen’s promise with material progress holds the prospect of reshaping our energy landscape sustainably. Forming collective future perspectives to foresee this emerging technology’s potential benefits is valuable. Our review article comprehensively explores the forthcoming challenges in hydrogen technology. We extensively examine the challenges and opportunities associated with hydrogen production incorporating CO2 capture technology. Furthermore the interaction of materials and composites with hydrogen particularly in the context of hydrogen transmission pipeline and infrastructure are discussed to understand the interplay between materials and hydrogen dynamics. Additionally the exploration extends to the embrittlement phenomena during storage and transmission coupled with a comprehensive examination of the advancements and hurdles intrinsic to hydrogen fuel cells. Finally our exploration encompasses addressing hydrogen safety from an industrial perspective. By illuminating these dimensions our article provides a panoramic view of the evolving hydrogen landscape.

Beyond its role as an energy vector a growing number of natural hydrogen sources and reservoirs are being discovered all over the globe which could represent a clean energy source. Although the hydrogen amounts in reservoirs are uncertain they could be vast and they could help decarbonize energy-intensive economic sectors and facilitate the energy transition. Natural hydrogen is mainly produced through a geochemical process known as serpentinization which involves the reaction of water with low-silica ferrous minerals. In favorable locations the hydrogen produced can become trapped by impermeable rocks on its way to the atmosphere forming a reservoir. The safe exploitation of numerous natural hydrogen reservoirs seems feasible with current technology and several demonstration plants are being commissioned. Natural hydrogen may show variable composition and require custom separation purification storage and distribution facilities depending on the location and intended use. By investing in research in the mid-term more hydrogen sources could become exploitable and geochemical processes could be artificially stimulated in new locations. In the long term it may be possible to leverage or engineer the interplay between microorganisms and geological substrates to obtain hydrogen and other chemicals in a sustainable manner.

To achieve carbon neutrality in Japan by 2050 renewable energy needs to be used as the main energy source. Based on the constraints of various renewable energies the importance of hydrogen cannot be ignored. This study aimed to investigate the diffusion of hydrogen demand technologies in various sectors and used projections and assumptions to investigate the hydrogen supply side. By performing simulations with the E3ME-FTT model and comparing various policy scenarios with the reference scenario the economic and environmental impacts of the policy scenarios for hydrogen diffusion were analyzed. Moreover the impact of realizing carbon neutrality by 2050 on the Japanese economy was evaluated. Our results revealed that large-scale decarbonization via hydrogen diffusion is possible (90% decrease of CO2 emissions in 2050 compared to the reference) without the loss of economic activity. Additionally investments in new hydrogen-based and other low-carbon technologies in the power sector freight road transport and iron and steel industry can improve the gross domestic product (1.6% increase in 2050 compared to the reference) as they invoke economic activity and require additional employment (0.6% increase in 2050 compared to the reference). Most of the employment gains are related to decarbonizing the power sector and scaling up the hydrogen supply sector while a lot of job losses can be expected in the mining and fossil fuel industries.

Currently meeting the global energy demand is largely dependent on fossil fuels such as natural gas coal and oil. Fossil fuels represent a danger to the Earth’s environment and its biological systems. The utilisation of these fuels results in a rise in atmospheric CO2 levels which in turn triggers global warming and adverse changes in the climate. Furthermore these represent finite energy resources that will eventually deplete. There is a pressing need to identify and harness renewable energy sources as a replacement for fossil fuels in the near future. This shift is expected to have a minimal environmental impact and would contribute to ensuring energy security. Hydrogen is considered a highly desirable fuel option with the potential to substitute depleting hydrocarbon resources. This concise review explores diverse methods of renewable hydrogen production with a primary focus on solar wind geothermal and mainly water-splitting techniques such as electrolysis thermolysis photolysis and biomass-related processes. It addresses their limitations and key challenges hampering the global hydrogen economy’s growth including clean value chain creation storage transportation production costs standards and investment risks. The study concludes with research recommendations to enhance production efficiencies and policy suggestions for governments to mitigate investment risks while scaling up the hydrogen economy.

Energy transition will reshape the power sector and hydrogen is a key energy carrier that could contribute to energy security. The inclusion of sustainability criteria is crucial for the adequate design/deployment of resilient hydrogen networks. While cost and environmental metrics are commonly included in hydrogen models social aspects are rarely considered. This paper aims to identify the social criteria related to the hydrogen economy by using a systematic hybrid literature review. The main contribution is the identification of twelve social aspects which are described ranked and discussed. “Accessibility” “Information” “H2 markets” and “Acceptability” are now emerging as the main themes of hydrogen-related social research. Identified gaps are e.g. lack of the definition of the value of H2 for society insufficient research for “socio-political” aspects (e.g. geopolitics wellbeing) scarce application of social lifecycle assessment and the low amount of works with a focus on social practices and cultural issues.

Dihydrogen (H2) commonly named ‘hydrogen’ is increasingly recognised as a clean and reliable energy vector for decarbonisation and defossilisation by various sectors. The global hydrogen demand is projected to increase from 70 million tonnes in 2019 to 120 million tonnes by 2024. Hydrogen development should also meet the seventh goal of ‘affordable and clean energy’ of the United Nations. Here we review hydrogen production and life cycle analysis hydrogen geological storage and hydrogen utilisation. Hydrogen is produced by water electrolysis steam methane reforming methane pyrolysis and coal gasification. We compare the environmental impact of hydrogen production routes by life cycle analysis. Hydrogen is used in power systems transportation hydrocarbon and ammonia production and metallugical industries. Overall combining electrolysis-generated hydrogen with hydrogen storage in underground porous media such as geological reservoirs and salt caverns is well suited for shifting excess of-peak energy to meet dispatchable on-peak demand.

In order to achieve the EU’s target of 55% carbon reduction by 2030 hydrogen will have to make a key contribution to the energy mix. With many applications in industrial heat mobility power and chemical refineries hydrogen can be used to decarbonise where electrification is not possible. Equinor is a broad energy company with 21000 employees developing oil gas wind and solar energy in more than 30 countries worldwide. Equinor have been at the forefront of promoting hydrogen projects in Europe and developing low-carbon hydrogen solutions. In this episode Johan Leuraers Chief Consultant - Policy and Regulatory Affairs at Equinor and John Williams Head of Hydrogen Expertise Cluster at AFRY Management Consulting join us to discuss the main barriers to the uptake of hydrogen and the next steps to kick-start the hydrogen economy.

The podcast can be found on their website.

Welcome to our Future Energy Scenarios. These scenarios which stimulate debate and help inform the decisions that will shape our energy future have never been more important – especially when you consider the extent to which the energy landscape is being transformed.

Accommodating renewables on the electricity grid may hinder development opportunities for offshore wind farms (OWFs) as they begin to experience significant curtailment or constraint. However there is potential to combine investment in OWFs with Power-to-Gas (PtG) converting electricity to hydrogen via electrolysis for an alternative/complementary revenue. Using historic wind speed and simulated system marginal costs data this work models the electricity generated and potential revenues of a 504 MW OWF. Three configurations are analysed; (1) all electricity is sold to the grid (2) all electricity is converted to hydrogen and sold and (3) a hybrid system where power is converted to hydrogen when curtailment occurs and/or when the system marginal cost is low with the effect of curtailment analysed in each scenario. These represent the status quo a potential future configuration and an innovative business model respectively. The willingness of an investor to build PtG are determined by changes to the net present value (NPV) of a project. Results suggest that configuration (1) is most profitable and that curtailment mitigation alone is not sufficient to secure investment in PtG. By acting as an artificial floor in the electricity price a hybrid configuration (3) is promising and increases NPV for all hydrogen values greater than €4.2/kgH2. Hybrid system attractiveness increases with curtailment only if the hydrogen value is significantly above the levelised cost of €3.77/kgH2. In order for an investor to choose to pursue configuration (2) the offshore wind farm would have to anticipate 8.5% curtailment and be able to receive €4.5/kgH2 or 25% curtailment and receive €4/kgH2. The capital costs and discount rates are the most sensitive parameters and ambitious combinations of technology improvements could produce a levelised cost of €3/kgH2.

The holistic green energy transition of non-interconnected islands faces several challenges if all the energy sectors are included i.e. electricity heating/cooling and mobility. On the one hand the penetration of renewable energy systems (RES) is limited due to design restrictions with respect to the peak demand. On the other hand energy-intensive heating and mobility sectors pose significant challenges and may be difficult to electrify. The focus of this study is on implementing a hybrid Wind–PV system on the non-interconnected island of Anafi (Greece) that utilizes surplus renewable energy production for both building heating through heat pumps and hydrogen generation. This comprehensive study aims to achieve a holistic green transition by addressing all three main sectors—electricity heating and transportation. The produced hydrogen is utilized to address the energy needs of the mobility sector (H2 mobility) focusing primarily on public transportation vehicles (buses) and secondarily on private vehicles. The overall RES production was modeled to be 91724 MWh with a RES penetration of 84.68%. More than 40% of the produced electricity from RES was in the form of excess electricity that could be utilized for hydrogen generation. The modeled generated hydrogen was simulated to be more than 40 kg H2/day which could cover all four bus routes of the island and approximately 200 cars for moderate use i.e. traveled distances of less than 25 km/day for each vehicle.

Hydrogen technologies are promising candidates of new energy technologies for electric power load smoothing. However regardless of long-term public investment hydrogen economy has not been realized. In Japan the National Research and Development Institute of New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) a public research-funding agency has invested more than 200 billion yen in the technical development of hydrogen-related technologies. However hydrogen technologies such as fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have not been disseminated yet. Continuous and strategic research and development (R&D) are needed but there is a lack of expertise in this field. In this study the transition of the budgetary allocations by NEDO were analyzed by classifying NEDO projects along the hydrogen supply chain and research stage. We found a different R&D focus in different periods. From 2004 to 2007 empirical research on fuel cells increased with the majority of research focusing on standardization. From 2008 to 2011 investment in basic research of fuel cells increased again the research for verification of fuel cells continued and no allocation for research on hydrogen production was confirmed. Thereafter the investment trend did not change until around 2013 when practical application of household fuel cells (ENE-FARM) started selling in 2009 in terms of hydrogen supply chain. Hydrogen economy requires a different hydrogen supply infrastructure that is an existing infrastructure of city gas for ENE-FARM and a dedicated infrastructure for FCVs (e.g. hydrogen stations). We discussed the possibility that structural inertia could prevent the transition to investing more in hydrogen infrastructure from hydrogen utilization technology. This work has significant implications for designing national research projects to realize hydrogen economy.

Meeting the Paris Agreement's goal to limit global warming to well below 2 °C and pursuing efforts towards 1.5 °C is likely to require more rapid and fundamental energy system changes than the previously-agreed 2 °C target. Here we assess over 200 integrated assessment model scenarios which achieve 2 °C and well-below 2 °C targets drawn from the IPCC's fifth assessment report database combined with a set of 1.5 °C scenarios produced in recent years. We specifically assess differences in a range of near-term indicators describing CO2 emissions reductions pathways changes in primary energy and final energy across the economy's major sectors in addition to more detailed metrics around the use of carbon capture and storage (CCS) negative emissions low-carbon electricity and hydrogen.

Our Future Energy Scenarios (FES) outline four different credible pathways for the future of energy over the next 30 years. Based on input from over 600 experts the report looks at the energy needed in Britain across electricity and gas - examining where it could come from how it needs to change and what this means for consumers society and the energy system itself.

Austria is committed to the net-zero climate goal along with the European Union. This requires all sectors to be decarbonized. Hereby hydrogen plays a vital role as stated in the national hydrogen strategy. A report commissioned by the Austrian government predicts a minimum hydrogen demand of 16 TWh per year in Austria in 2040. Besides hydrogen imports domestic production can ensure supply. Hence this study analyses the levelized cost of hydrogen for an off-grid production plant including a proton exchange membrane electrolyzer wind power and solar photovoltaics in Austria. In the first step the capacity factors of the renewable electricity sources are determined by conducting a geographic information system analysis. Secondly the levelized cost of electricity for wind power and solarphotovoltaics plants in Austria is calculated. Thirdly the most cost-efficient portfolio of wind power and solar photovoltaics plants is determined using electricity generation profiles with a 10-min granularity. The modelled system variants differ among location capacity factors of the renewable electricity sources and the full load hours of the electrolyzer. Finally selected variables are tested for their sensitivities. With the applied model the hydrogen production cost for decentralized production plants can be calculated for any specific location. The levelized cost of hydrogen estimates range from 3.08 EUR/kg to 13.12 EUR/kg of hydrogen whereas it was found that the costs are most sensitive to the capacity factors of the renewable electricity sources and the full load hours of the electrolyzer. The novelty of the paper stems from the model applied that calculates the levelized cost of renewable hydrogen in an off-grid hydrogen production system. The model finds a cost-efficient portfolio of directly coupled wind power and solar photovoltaics systems for 80 different variants in an Austria-specific context.

Legislation regulating the sustainability requirements for hydrogen technologies relies more and more on life cycle assessments (LCAs). Due to different scopes and development processes different pieces of EU legislation refer to different LCA methodologies with differences in the way multifunctional processes (i.e. co-productions recycling and energy recovery) are treated. These inconsistencies arise because incentive mechanisms are not standardized across sectors even though the end product hydrogen remains the same. The goal of this paper is to compare the life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of hydrogen from four production pathways depending on the multifunctional approach prescribed by the different EU policies (e.g. using substitution or allocation). The study reveals a large variation in the LCA results. For instance the life-cycle GHG emissions of hydrogen co-produced with methanol is found to vary from 1 kg CO2-equivalent/kg H2 (when mass allocation is considered) to 11 kg CO2-equivalent/kg H2 (when economic allocation is used). These inconsistencies could affect the market (e.g. hydrogen from a certain pathway could be considered sustainable or unsustainable depending on the approach) and the environment (e.g. pathways that do not lead to a global emission reduction could be promoted). To mitigate these potential negative effects we urge for harmonized and strict guidelines to assess the life-cycle GHG emissions of hydrogen technologies in an EU policy context. Harmonization should cover international policies too to avoid the same risks when hydrogen will be traded based on its GHG emissions. The appropriate methodological approach for each production pathway should be chosen by policymakers in collaboration with the LCA community and stakeholders from the industry based on the potential market and environmental consequences of such choice.

Electrification of the transportation sector is one of the main drivers in the decarbonization of energy and mobility systems and it is a way to ensure security of energy supply. Public bus fleets can assist in achieving fast reduction of CO2 emissions. This article provides an analysis of a unique real-world dataset to support decision makers in the decarbonization of public fleets and interlink it with the social acceptance of drivers. Data was collected from 21 fuel cell and electric buses. The tank-to-wheel efficiency results of fuel cell electric buses (FCEB) are much lower than that of battery electric buses (BEB) and there is a higher variation in consumption for BEBs compared to FCEBs. Both technologies permit a strong reduction in CO2 emissions compared to conventional buses. There is a high level of acceptance of drivers which are likely to support the transition towards zero-emission buses introduced by the management.

The main problem confronting the world is human-caused climate change which is intrinsically linked to the need for energy both now and in the future. Renewable (green) energy has been proposed as a future solution and many renewable energy technologies have been developed for different purposes. However progress toward net zero carbon emissions by 2050 and the role of renewable energy in 2050 are not well known. This paper reviews different renewable energy technologies developed by different researchers and their potential and challenges to date and it derives lessons for world and especially African policymakers. According to recent research results the mean global capabilities for solar wind biogas geothermal hydrogen and ocean power are 325 W 900 W 300 W 434 W 150 W and 2.75 MWh respectively and their capacities for generating electricity are 1.5 KWh 1182.5 KWh 1.7 KWh 1.5 KWh 1.55 KWh and 3.6 MWh respectively. Securing global energy leads to strong hope for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) such as those for hunger health education gender equality climate change and sustainable development. Therefore renewable energy can be a considerable contributor to future fuels.

Because of the pressure to meet carbon neutrality targets carbon reduction has become a challenge for fossil fuel resource-based regions. Even though China has become the most active country in carbon reduction its extensive energy supply and security demand make it difficult to turn away from its dependence on coal-based fossil energy. This paper analyzes the Chinese coal capital—Shanxi Province—to determine whether the green low-carbon energy transition should be focused on coal resource areas. In these locations the selection and effect of transition tools are key to ensuring that China meets its carbon reduction goal. Due to the time window of clean coal utilization the pressure of local governments and the survival demands of local high energy consuming enterprises Shanxi Province chose hydrogen as its important transition tool. A path for developing hydrogen resources has been established through lobbying and corporative influence on local and provincial governments. Based on such policy guidance Shanxi has realized hydrogen applications in large-scale industrial parks regional public transport and the iron and steel industry. This paper distinguishes between the development strategies of gray and green hydrogen. It shows that hydrogen can be an effective development model for resource-based regions as it balances economic stability and energy transition.

Chile abundant in solar and wind energy resources presents significant potential for the production of green hydrogen a promising renewable energy vector. However realizing this potential requires an understanding of the most suitable locations for the installation of green hydrogen industries. This study proposes a quantitative methodology that identifies and ranks potential public lands for industrial use based on a range of technical parameters (such as solar and wind availability) and socio-environmental considerations (including land use restrictions and population density). The results reveal optimal locations that can facilitate informed sustainable decision-making for large-scale green hydrogen implementation in Chile. While this methodology does not replace project-specific technical or environmental impact studies it provides a flexible general classification to guide initial site selection. Notably this approach can be applied to other regions worldwide with abundant solar and wind resources such as Australia and Northern Africa promoting more effective and sustainable global decision-making for green hydrogen production.

This report aims to summarise the status of the European hydrogen policies and standards landscape. It is based on the information available at the European Hydrogen Observatory (EHO) platform the leading source of data and information on hydrogen in Europe (EU27 EFTA and the UK) providing an overview of the European and national policies legislations strategies and codes and standards which impact the deployment of hydrogen technologies and infrastructures. The EHO database covers a total of 29 EU policies and legislations that directly or indirectly affect the development and deployment of hydrogen technologies. To achieve its net zero ambitions the EU started with cross-cutting strategies such as the EU Green Deal and the EU Hydrogen Strategy setting forward roadmaps and targets that are to be achieved in the near future. As a next step the EU has developed legislations such as those bundled in the Fit for 55 package to meet the targets they have put forward. The implemented legislations including funding vehicles and initiatives have an impact on the whole value chain of hydrogen including production transport storage and distribution and end-uses. At national level as of July 2023 63% of the European countries have successfully published their national strategies in the hydrogen sector while 6% of the countries are currently in the draft stage. Several European countries have strategically incorporated quantitative indicators within their national strategies outlining their targets and estimates across the hydrogen value chain. This deliberate approach reflects a commitment to providing clear and measurable goals within their hydrogen strategies. A target often used in the national strategies is on electrolyser capacity as an effort to enhance the domestic renewable hydrogen production. Germany took the lead with an ambitious goal of achieving 10 GW by 2030 followed by France (6.5 GW) and Denmark (4 - 6 GW). Other targets that some of the countries use in their strategies are on the number of hydrogen refuelling stations fuel cell electric vehicles and total (renewable) hydrogen demand. A few countries also have targets on renewable hydrogen uptake in industry and hydrogen injection limit in the transmission grid. To monitor the policies and legislation that are adopted on a national level across the hydrogen value chain a survey was launched with national experts which was validated by Hydrogen Europe. In total 28 European countries have participated to the survey. On production the survey revealed that 61% of country specialists report that their country provides support for capital expenditure (CAPEX) in the development of renewable or low-carbon hydrogen production plants. Moreover 7 countries also provide support for operational expenditure (OPEX). Furthermore 8 countries have instituted official 6 permitting guidelines for hydrogen production projects while 5 countries have enacted a legal act or established an agency serving as a single point of contact for hydrogen project developers. For transmission only two countries reported to provide support schemes for hydrogen injection. Several countries have policies in place that clearly define the hydrogen limit in their transmission grid for now and in the future ranging from 0.02% up to 15% while a few countries define within their policies the operation of hydrogen storage facilities. On end-use the majority of countries totalling 71% reported to have implemented support schemes aimed at promoting the adoption of hydrogen in the mobility sector. Purchase subsidies stand out as the predominant form of support for fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) with implementation observed in 17 countries. In the context of support schemes for stationary fuel applications for heating or power generation only two countries have adopted such measures. A slightly larger group of four countries do provide support for the deployment of residential and commercial heating systems utilizing hydrogen. For hydrogen end-use in industry a total of 9 countries reported to provide support schemes with a major focus on ammonia production (8) and the chemicals industry (7). On the topic of technology manufacturing 7 countries have reported to have support schemes of which grants emerge as the mainly used method (4). Exploring the latest advancements into European codes and standards relevant to the deployment of hydrogen technologies and infrastructures a total of 11 standards have been revised and developed between January 2022 and September 2023. This includes standards covering the following areas: 6 for fuel cell technologies 2 for gas cylinders 2 for road vehicles and 1 for hydrogen refuelling. Moreover 5 standards were published since September 2023 which will be added to the EHO database in its next update. This includes ISO/TS 19870:2023 which sets a methodology for determining the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production conditioning and transport of hydrogen to consumption gate. This landmark standard which was unveiled at COP28 aims to act as a foundation for harmonization safety interoperability and sustainability across the hydrogen value chain.

Purpose: The policy module of the FCHO presents an overview of EU and national policies across various hydrogen and fuel cell related sectors. It provides a snapshot of the current state of hydrogen legislation and policy. Scope: This report covers 34 entities and it reflects data collected January 2022 – February 2022. Key Findings: Hydrogen policies are relatively commonplace among European countries but with large differences between member states. Mobility policies for FCEVs are the most common policy types. EU hydrogen leaders do not lag behind global outliers such as South Korea or Japan.

The information in this report covers the period January 2021 – December 2021. The technology and market module of the FCHO presents a range of statistical data as an indicator of the health of the sector and the progress in market development over time. This includes statistical information on the size of the global fuel cell market including number and capacity of fuel cell systems shipped in a calendar year. For this edition data to the end of 2021 is presented where possible alongside analysis of key sector developments. Fuel cell system shipments for each calendar year are presented both as numbers of units and total system megawatts. The data are further divided and subdivided by:  Application: Total system shipments are divided into Transport Stationary and Portable applications  Fuel cell type: Numbers are provided for each of the different fuel cell chemistry types  Region of integration: Region where the final manufacturer – usually the system integrator – integrates the fuel cell into the final product  Region of deployment: Region where the final product was shipped to for deployment The data is sourced directly from industry players as well as other relevant sources including press releases associations and other industry bodies. This year the report also includes data relating to electrolysers commissioned within Europe. Information is presented on the number of hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) deployed since 2014 with detailed information on HRS in operation including pressure capacity etc. In parallel the observatory provides data on the registered fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) on European roads providing an indication of the speed of adoption of hydrogen in the transport sector. This annual report is an enrichment analysis of the data available on the FCHO providing global context and insights on trends observed year-over-year. Electrolyser systems commissioned for each calendar year within Europe are presented as both the number of units and the total system power rating in megawatts (MW). The data is further divided by:  Number of Electrolyser Units Commissioned: The number of units brought online each year in Europe from 2000 until 2021.  Application: Total systems commissioned are divided in Transport Fuel Industry Feedstock Steel Making Industrial Heat Power Generation Export Grid Injection and Sector Coupling.  Electrolyser Type: Number for each of the different electrolyser types commissioned are provided.  Region of deployment: Region where the electrolyser was commissioned. All sections in the Technology & Market module are updated following an annual data collection and validation cycle and the annual report is published the following Spring.

This report aims to summarise the status of the European hydrogen market landscape. It is based on the information available at the European Hydrogen Observatory (EHO) platform the leading source of data and information on hydrogen in Europe (EU27 EFTA and the UK) providing a full overview of the hydrogen market and the deployment of clean hydrogen technologies. As of the end of 2022 a total of 476 operational hydrogen production facilities across Europe boasting a cumulative hydrogen production capacity of approximately 11.30 Mt were identified. Notably the largest share of this capacity is contributed by key European countries including Germany the Netherlands Poland Italy and France which collectively account for 56% of the total hydrogen capacity. The hydrogen consumption in Europe has been estimated at approximately 8.23 Mt reflecting an average capacity utilisation rate of 73%. It's worth highlighting that conventional hydrogen production methods encompassing reforming by-product production from ethylene and styrene and by-product electrolysis collectively yield 11.28 Mt of hydrogen capacity. These conventional processes are distributed across 376 production facilities constituting 99.9% of the total production capacity in 2022. Throughout the year 2022 there were no newly commissioned hydrogen production facilities that integrated carbon capture technology into their operations. Additionally a notable presence of water electrolysis-based hydrogen production projects in Europe was identified. There was a total of 97 water electrolysis projects with 67 of them having a minimum capacity of 0.5 MW resulting in a cumulative production capacity of 174.28 MW. Furthermore 46 such projects were found to be under construction and are anticipated to contribute an additional 1199.07 MW of water electrolysis capacity upon becoming operational with the estimated timeframe ranging from January 2023 to 2025. A significant 87% of the total hydrogen production capacity in Europe is dedicated to onsite captive consumption indicating that it is primarily produced and used within the facility. The remaining 13% of capacity is specifically allocated for external distribution and sale characterizing what's known as merchant consumption. Despite the prevailing dominance of captive hydrogen production within Europe it's noteworthy that thousands of metric tonnes of hydrogen are already being traded and distributed across the continent. These transfers often occur through dedicated hydrogen pipelines or transportation via trucks. In 2022 an example of this growing trend was the hydrogen export from Belgium to the Netherlands which emerged as the single most significant hydrogen flow between European countries constituting a substantial 75% of all hydrogen traded in Europe. Belgium earned distinction as Europe's leading hydrogen exporter with 78% of the hydrogen that flowed between European countries originating 6 from its facilities. Conversely the Netherlands played a pivotal role as Europe's primary hydrogen importer accounting for an impressive 76% of the hydrogen imported into the continent. The rise of the clean hydrogen market in Europe coupled with the European Union's ambition to import 10 Mt of renewable hydrogen from non-EU sources by 2030 is expected to drive an increase in hydrogen flows both exports and imports among European countries. In 2022 the total demand for hydrogen in Europe was estimated to be 8.19 Mt. The biggest share of hydrogen demand comes from refineries which were responsible for 57% of total hydrogen use (4.6 Mt) followed by the ammonia industry with 24% (2.0 Mt). Together these two sectors consumed 81% of the total hydrogen consumption in Europe. Clean hydrogen demand while currently making up less than 0.1% of the overall hydrogen demand is notably driven by the mobility sector. Forecasts project an impressive growth trajectory in total hydrogen demand for Europe over the coming decades. Projections show a remarkable 127% surge from 2030 to 2040 followed by a substantial 63% increase from 2040 to 2050. Considering the current hydrogen demand there is a projected 51% increase until 2030. Throughout the three decades under examination the industrial sector is anticipated to maintain its predominant position consistently demonstrating the highest demand for hydrogen. However this conclusion refers to average values and variations that may exist. The total number of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEV) registrations in Europe in 2022 was estimated at 1537 units. In comparison to the previous year the number of registrations increased by 31%. This surge in registrations has had a pronounced impact on the overall FCEV fleet's evolution in Europe which increased from 4050 units to 5570 (+38%). Notably passenger cars dominated the landscape constituting 86% of the total FCEV fleet. Exploring the latest advancements in hydrogen infrastructure across Europe in 2022 the hydrogen distribution network comprised spanning a total length of 1569 km. Within Europe the largest networks are situated in Belgium and Germany at 600 km and 400 km respectively. Of particular importance is the cross-border network of France Belgium and the Netherlands spanning a total of 964 km. To keep pace with the rising number of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) on European roads and promote their wider integration it is key to ensure sufficient accessibility to refuelling infrastructure. Consequently many countries are endorsing the establishment of hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) so that they are publicly accessible on a nationwide scale. More recharging and refuelling stations for alternative fuels will be deployed in the coming years across Europe enabling the transport sector to significantly reduce its carbon footprint following the adoption of the alternative fuel infrastructure regulation (AFIR). Part of the regulation's main target is that hydrogen refuelling stations serving both cars and lorries must be deployed from 7 2030 onwards in all urban nodes and every 200 km along the TEN-T core network. Since 2015 the total number of operational and publicly accessible HRS in Europe has grown at an accelerated pace from 38 to 178 by the summer of 2023. Germany takes the lead having the largest share at approximately 54% of the total number of HRS with 96 stations currently operational. The majority of the HRS (89%) are equipped with 700 bar car dispensers. In 2022 the levelized production costs of hydrogen generated through Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) in Europe averaged approximately 6.23 €/kg H2. When incorporating a carbon capture system the average cost of hydrogen production via SMR in Europe increased to 6.38 €/kg H2. Additionally the production costs of hydrogen in Europe for 2022 utilizing grid electricity averaged 9.85 €/kg H2. Hydrogen production costs through electrolysis with a direct connection to a renewable energy source had an average estimated cost of 6.86 €/kg. As of May 2023 Europe's operational water electrolyser manufacturing capacity stands at 3.11 GW/year with an additional 2.64 GW planned by the end of 2023. Alkaline technologies make up 53% of the total capacity. Looking ahead to 2025 ongoing projects are expected to raise the total capacity to 7.65 GW/year. Fuel cell deployment in Europe has showed an increasing trend over the past decade. The total number of shipped fuel cells were forecasted on around 11200 units in 2021 and a total capacity of 190 MW. The most significant increase in capacity occurred between 2018 and the forecast of 2021 (+148.8 MW).

Purpose: The purpose of the hydrogen supply and demand data stream is to track changes in the structure of hydrogen supply capacity and demand in Europe. This report is mainly focused on presenting the current landscape that will allow for future year-on-year comparisons to assess the progress Europe is making with regards to deployment of clean hydrogen production capacity as well as development of demand for clean hydrogen from emerging new hydrogen applications in industry or mobility sectors. Scope: The following report contains data about hydrogen production capacity and consumption in EU countries together with Switzerland Norway Iceland and the United Kingdom. Hydrogen production capacity is presented by country and by production technology whereas the hydrogen consumption data is presented by country and by end-use sector. The analysis undertaken for this report was completed using data reflecting end of 2019. Key Findings: The current hydrogen market (on both the demand and supply side) is dominated by ammonia and refining industries with three countries (DE NL PL) responsible for almost half of hydrogen consumption. Hydrogen is overwhelmingly produced by reforming of fossil fuels (mostly natural gas). Clean hydrogen production capacities are currently insignificant with hydrogen produced from natural gas coupled with carbon capture at 0.5% and hydrogen produced from water electrolysis at 0.14% of total production capacity.

The UK is not ‘starting from zero’. We have an accelerating base of hydrogen technology supply chain companies a world-class scientific base and an array of demonstration projects.

The need is to prioritise and coordinate investment to build and scale hydrogen supply chains serving multiple markets domestically and internationally. This report provides an overview of UK capability in hydrogen technologies. It has been produced as a supporting report to The UK Hydrogen Innovation Opportunity.

This report can also be downloaded for free on the Hydrogen Innovation Initiative website.

Green hydrogen (GH2) is expected to play an important role in future energy systems in their fight against climate change. This study after briefly recalling how GH2 is produced and the main steps throughout its life cycle analyses its current development environmental and social impacts and a series of case studies from selected literature showing its main applications as fuel in transportation and electricity sectors as a heat producer in high energy intensive industries and residential and commercial buildings and as an industrial feedstock for the production of other chemical products. The results show that the use of GH2 in the three main areas of application has the potential of contributing to the decarbonization goals although its generation of non-negligible impacts in other environmental categories requires attention. However the integration of circular economy (CE) principles is important for the mitigation of these impacts. In social terms the complexity of the value chain of GH2 generates social impacts well beyond countries where GH2 is produced and used. This aspect makes the GH2 value chain complex and difficult to trace somewhat undermining its renewability claims as well as its expected localness that the CE model is centred around.

The successful commercialisation of underground hydrogen storage (UHS) is contingent upon technological readiness and social acceptance. A lack of social acceptance inadequate policies/regulations an unreliable business case and environmental uncertainty have the potential to delay or prevent UHS commercialisation even in cases where it is ready. The technologies utilised for underground hydrogen and carbon dioxide storage are analogous. The differences lie in the types of gases stored and the purpose of their storage. It is anticipated that the challenges related to public acceptance will be analogous in both cases. An assessment was made of the possibility of transferring experiences related to the social acceptance of CO2 sequestration to UHS based on an analysis of relevant articles from indexed journals. The analysis enabled the identification of elements that can be used and incorporated into the social acceptance of UHS. A framework was identified that supports the assessment and implementation of factors determining social acceptance ranging from conception to demonstration to implementation. These factors include education communication stakeholder involvement risk assessment policy and regulation public trust benefits research and demonstration programmes and social embedding. Implementing these measures has the potential to increase acceptance and facilitate faster implementation of this technology.

The shipping industry faces the dual challenge of reducing emissions to meet net-zero targets by 2050 and transporting green energy sources like hydrogen and its derivatives. Green shipping corridors provide experimental routes for lowcarbon solutions with the Suez Canal uniquely positioned to lead. This paper examines the canal’s evolving role as a dynamic energy space where diverse actors and networks intersect shaping spatial power relations and aligning with green capitalism interests. It explores the Suez Canal’s potential to serve as a model for hydrogen initiatives and its capacity to influence global energy governance and geopolitical dynamics in the transition to a sustainable shipping future. The canal also represents a microcosm of broader global shifts toward a future hydrogen economy where numerous stakeholders vie for power and influence.

Demand for hydrogen is expected to increase in the coming years to defossilize hard-to-abate sectors. In the European Union the question remains in which quantities and at what cost hydrogen can be produced to satisfy the growing demand. This paper applies different approaches to model costs and potentials of off-grid hydrogen production within the European Union. The modeled approaches distinguish the effects of different spatial and technological resolutions on hydrogen production potentials costs and prices. According to the results the hydrogen potential within the European Union is above 6800 TWh. This figure far surpasses the expected demand range of 1423 to 1707 TWh in 2050. The cost of satisfying the demand exceeds 100 billion euro at marginal costs of hydrogen below 85 euro per megawatt-hour. Additionally the results show that an integrated European Union market would reduce the overall system costs notably compared to a setup in which each country covers its own hydrogen demand domestically. Just a few countries would be able to supply the entire European Union’s hydrogen demand in the case of an integrated market. This finding leads to the conclusion that an international hydrogen infrastructure seems advantageous.

The transition to 100% renewable energy systems is critical for achieving global sustainability and reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Island power systems due to their geographical isolation limited interconnectivity and reliance on imported fuels face unique challenges in this transition. These systems’ vulnerability to supply–demand imbalances voltage instability and frequency deviations necessitates tailored strategies for achieving grid stability. This study conducts a systematic review of the technical and operational challenges associated with transitioning island energy systems to fully renewable generation following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalyses (PRISMA) methodology. Out of 991 identified studies 81 high-quality articles were selected focusing on key aspects such as grid stability energy storage technologies and advanced control strategies. The review highlights the importance of energy storage solutions like battery energy storage systems hydrogen storage pumped hydro storage and flywheels in enhancing grid resilience and supporting frequency and voltage regulation. Advanced control strategies including grid-forming and grid-following inverters as well as digital twins and predictive analytics emerged as effective in maintaining grid efficiency. Real-world case studies from islands such as El Hierro Hawai’i and Nusa Penida illustrate successful strategies and best practices emphasizing the role of supportive policies and community engagement. While the findings demonstrate that fully renewable island systems are technically and economically feasible challenges remain including regulatory financial and policy barriers.

Increasing renewable energy technology penetration into electrical grids to meet net zero CO2 emission targets is a key challenge in terms of intermittency; one solution is the provision of sufficient energy storage. In the current study we considered future projections of electrical demand and renewable energy (in 2042) for the Southwest Interconnected System grid in Western Australia. Required energy storage considered is a mixture of battery energy storage systems and underground hydrogen storage in a depleted gas reservoir. The Southwest Interconnected System serves as an excellent case study given that it is a comparatively large isolated grid with substantial potential access to renewable energy resources as well as potential underground hydrogen storage sites. This work utilised a dynamic energy model that summates the wind and solar energy resources on an hourly basis. Excess energy utilised battery energy storage systems capacity first followed by underground hydrogen storage. The relative size of the renewables and the storage options is then optimised in terms of minimising wholesale energy production costs. This unique optimisation analysis across the full integrated system clearly indicated that both battery energy storage systems and underground hydrogen storage are required; underground hydrogen storage is predominately necessary to meet seasonal unmet energy demand that amounts to approximately 6% of total demand. Underground hydrogen storage costs were dominated by the required electrolyser requirements. The optimised levelised cost of electricity was found to be US$106/MWh which is approximately 45% larger than current wholesale electricity prices.

This study investigates the impact of delayed and accelerated expansion of the volatile renewable energy sources (vRES) onshore wind offshore wind and photovoltaics on Europe’s (EU27 United Kingdom Norway and Switzerland) demand for hydrogen imports and its derivatives to meet demand from final energy consumption sectors and to comply with European greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets. Using the multi-energy system model ISAaR we analyze fourteen scenarios with different levels of vRES expansion including an evaluation of the resulting hydrogen prices. The load-weighted average European hydrogen price in the BASE scenario decreases from 4.1 €/kg in 2030 to 3.3 €/kg by 2050. Results show that delaying the expansion of vRES significantly increases the demand for imports of hydrogen and its derivatives and thus increases the risk of not meeting GHG emission targets for two reasons: (1) higher import volumes to meet GHG emission targets increase dependence on third parties and lead to higher risk in terms of security of supply; (2) at the same time lower vRES expansion in combination with higher import volumes leads to higher resulting hydrogen prices which in turn affects the economic viability of the energy transition. In contrast an accelerated expansion of vRES reduces dependency on imports and stabilizes hydrogen prices below 3 €/kg in 2050 which increases planning security for hydrogen off-takers. The study underlines the importance of timely and strategic progress in the expansion of vRES and investment in hydrogen production storage and transport networks to minimize dependence on imports and effectively meet the European climate targets.

Green hydrogen is a promising energy carrier for the decarbonization of hard-toabate sectors and supporting renewable energy integration aligning with carbon neutrality goals like the European Green Deal. Iceland’s abundant renewable energy and decarbonized electricity system position it as a strong candidate for green hydrogen production. Despite early initiatives its hydrogen economy has yet to significantly expand. This study evaluated Iceland’s hydrogen development through stakeholder interviews and a techno-economic analysis of alkaline and PEM electrolyzers. Stakeholders were driven by decarbonization goals economic opportunities and energy security but faced technological economic and governance challenges. Recommendations include building stakeholder confidence financial incentives and creating hydrogen-based chemicals to boost demand. Currently alkaline electrolyzers are more cost-effective (EUR 1.5–2.8/kg) than PEMs (EUR 2.1–3.6/kg) though the future costs for both could drop below EUR 1.5/kg. Iceland’s low electricity costs and high electrolyzer capacity provide a competitive edge. However this advantage may shrink as solar and wind costs decline globally particularly in regions like Australia. This work’s findings emphasize the need for strategic planning to sustain competitiveness and offer transferable insights for other regions introducing hydrogen into ecosystems lacking infrastructure.

Many industrial processes such as ammonia fuel or steel production require considerable amounts of fossil feedstocks contributing significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions. Some of these fossil feedstocks and processes can be decarbonised via Power-to-X (P2X) production concepts based on hydrogen (H2) requiring considerable amounts of renewable electricity. Creating hydrogen valleys (HV) may facilitate a cost-efficient H2 production feeding H2 to multiple customers and purposes. At a large scale these HVs will shift from price takers to price makers in the local electricity market strongly affecting investments in renewable electricity. This paper analysed the dynamic evolution of a HV up to GW-scale by adopting a stepwise approach to HV development in North Ostrobothnia Finland considering multiple H₂ end uses such as P2X fuel manufacturing including ammonia methanol liquefied methane and H2 for mobility. The analysis was conducted by employing a dynamic linear optimization model “SmartP2X” to minimize LCOH within the HV boundaries. The analysis predicts that with ex-factory sales prices that are equal to or higher than marginal costs for P2X fuels production a LCOH of 3.4–3.9 EUR/kgH2 could be reached. The LCOH slightly increased with the size of the HV due to a H2 transmission pipeline investment; omitting the pipeline cost the LCOH exhibited a decreasing trend. The produced H2 will generally meet the EU definitions for clean Renewable Fuel of Non-Biological Origin (RFNBO). The additional wind power required for the HV scenarios was up to 2.1–3.0 GW depending on the RFNBO-fuel sales price. This represents a fraction of the current investment plans in the North Ostrobothnia region. The results of this paper contribute to the discussion on the interplay between hydrogen ecosystems and the power market particularly in relation to power-intensive P2X processes.

Around 75% of worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are generated by the combustion of fossil fuels (FFs) for energy production. Tackling climate change requires a global shift away from FF reliance and the decarbonization of energy systems. The energy manufacturing and construction sectors contribute a significant portion of Egypt’s total GHG emissions largely due to the reliance on fossil fuels in energy-intensive industries (EIIs). Decarbonizing these sectors is essential to achieve Egypt’s sustainable development goals improve air quality and create a resilient low-carbon economy. This paper examines practical scalable solutions to decarbonize energy-intensive industries in Egypt focusing on implementing renewable energy sources (RESs) enhancing energy efficiency and integrating new technologies such as carbon capture utilization and storage (CCUS) and green hydrogen (GH). We also explore the policy incentives and economic drivers that can facilitate these changes as the government aims to achieve net-zero GHG emissions for a sustainable transition by 2050.

This week the EAH team discusses LIFTE H2’s plans for the future and discusses the challenges in hydrogen markets expansion and rollout the need for resiliency for offtakers and how to build consumer confidence.

The podcast can be found on their website.

As hydrogen emerges as a pivotal energy carrier in the global transition towards net-zero emissions addressing its technological and regulatory challenges is essential for large-scale deployment. The widespread adoption of hydrogen technologies requires extensive research technical advancements validation testing and certification to ensure their efficiency reliability and safety across various applications including industrial processes power generation and transportation. This study provides an overview of key enabling technologies for green hydrogen production and distribution highlighting the critical challenges that must be overcome to facilitate their widespread adoption. It examines key hydrogen use cases across multiple sectors analysing their associated technical and infrastructural challenges. The technological advancements required to improve hydrogen production storage transportation and end-use applications are discussed. The development of state-of-the-art testing and validation facilities is also assessed as these are vital for ensuring safety performance and regulatory compliance. This work also reviews some of the ongoing academic and industrial initiatives in the UK aimed at promoting technological innovation advancing hydrogen expertise and developing world-class testing infrastructures. This study emphasises the need for stronger more integrated collaboration between universities industries and certifying bodies for building a strong network that promotes knowledge sharing standardisation and innovation for expanding hydrogen solutions and creating a sustainable hydrogen economy.

Hydrogen mobility is expected to be a crucial element in decarbonizing fossil fuel-based transportation. In South Korea hydrogen mobility has successfully formed an early market led by fuel cell passenger cars under strong support policies. Nevertheless the fuel cell vehicle (FCV) market is still in its infancy and current challenges must be overcome to achieve mass-market adoption. This study aims to identify the current challenges in the diffusion of FCVs in Korea. We identified the key challenges facing FCVs from a consumer perspective with data from the latest FCV customer survey. The data were applied to estimate ordered logit models of fuel cell car satisfaction and purchase intention. Significant challenges in Korea were identified from the perspective of vehicles infrastructure and renewable energy. Vehicle-related challenges include concerns about vehicle durability such as recalls and repairs and maintenance and repair costs. Infrastructure-related challenges include the fueling accessibility and fueling failures due to hydrogen refueling station facility failures or hydrogen supply problems. Challenges related to renewable energy include the low proportion of hydrogen from renewable sources. To achieve the large-scale diffusion of FCVs it is important to maintain support policies and attract new FCV demand such as long-distance heavy-duty vehicles.

North Africa’s Maghreb countries Morocco Tunisia and Algeria aim to become key players in the global green hydrogen market. However rising hydrogen demand challenges their ability to balance domestic decarbonization efforts with export ambitions. This study assesses the techno-economic trade-offs between national hydrogen targets and export goals evaluating their alignment with climate commitments using the TIMES-MAGe model. Five scenarios explore variations in electrolysis energy sourcing (renewables vs. grid) and water supply (surface vs. desalinated) under both local-only and export-oriented strategies. Results show that while exportdriven hydrogen production is feasible it imposes significant economic and resource burdens. By 2050 exports sharply increase hydrogen production costs electricity prices investment needs and water use. The competitiveness of renewable electricity is weakened as most renewable electricity is allocated to hydrogen exports constraining domestic decarbonization. Intra-regional hydrogen trade is less cost-effective than domestic supply with pipeline repurposing offering the most viable trade option. The findings inform future policy for cost-effective hydrogen development.

Seawater electrolysis is a promising approach for sustainable hydrogen production that could alleviate the ever-growing demand for freshwater resources. This literature review synthesizes current research on direct seawater electrolysis drawing attention to advances in electrode materials catalyst efficiency and system design. Furthermore an overview of indirect seawater electrolysis is given as a benchmark. Key challenges including electrode corrosion chlorine evolution and energy efficiency are critically analysed. Recent innovations in selective catalysts and membrane technologies are discussed as potential solutions for such challenges. The review also evaluates the economic feasibility of direct seawater electrolysis compared with the established traditional electrolysis using desalinated water. There is currently no research or industrial project demonstrating clear benefits of using direct seawater electrolysis over indirect seawater electrolysis. Our findings however do suggest that direct seawater electrolysis can become a viable component of the hydrogen economy for specific target applications.

Sweden with its abundant access to low-cost fossil-free electricity is well-positioned to become a significant hydrogen exporter. This study presents a techno-economic analysis of different hydrogen carriers—compressed hydrogen methanol ammonia and liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC)—for export applications. Using the Northern Green Crane Project as a reference for scale the analysis focuses on cost optimization for hydrogen production storage and transportation. A linear programming model is developed to optimize capacities and operational strategies for each carrier ensuring a fair basis for comparison. Results indicate that LOHC and ammonia are competitive with compressed hydrogen showing particular promise for larger-scale long-distance deliveries. These findings offer valuable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders developing Sweden’s hydrogen export strategies.

As global demand for green hydrogen rises potential hydrogen exporters move into the spotlight. While exports can bring countries revenue large-scale on-grid hydrogen electrolysis for export can profoundly impact domestic energy prices and energy-related emissions. Our investigation explores the interplay of hydrogen exports domestic energy transition and temporal hydrogen regulation employing a sector-coupled energy model in Morocco. We find substantial co-benefits of domestic carbon dioxide mitigation and hydrogen exports whereby exports can reduce market-based costs for domestic electricity consumers while mitigation reduces costs for hydrogen exporters. However increasing hydrogen exports in a fossil-dominated system can substantially raise market-based costs for domestic electricity consumers but surprisingly temporal matching of hydrogen production can lower these costs by up to 31% with minimal impact on exporters. Here we show that this policy instrument can steer the welfare (re-)distribution between hydrogen exporting firms hydrogen importers and domestic electricity consumers and hereby increases acceptance among actors.

Low carbon hydrogen has a fundamental role to play in not one but two of the UK Government’s core missions. First it can help grow the economy - with thousands of new jobs and opportunities breathing new life into our industrial heartlands. Second it can help the UK become a clean energy superpower by using clean secure energy that we control. Third it can future-proof the UK’s foundational industries delivering decarbonisation and energy security to the hard-to-abate sectors which underpin the UK economy. Hydrogen developers across our membership report growing interest from customers in a wide range of sectors. Whilst current government policy has helped start the hydrogen economy industry wants this to accelerate and become more holistic so that interest is translated into demand allowing the sector to fully develop and the UK to meet its decarbonisation targets. With growing international competition the UK Government should prioritise the growth of hydrogen technology implementation leveraging the nation’s natural geological and geographical advantages. Although £20 billion in private capital investment is estimated to be ready to support the UK Government’s hydrogen ambitions persistent delays and market uncertainty risk this funding being lost to other markets. This report outlines the importance of Driving Demand for offtakers complementing the strong market foundation built from Government’s early hydrogen production focus. For effective policy implementation industry stakeholders have highlighted the importance of finding balance: retaining low-carbon technology optionality alongside certainty and support for investment with the adoption of a clear ‘vision’ and ‘market creation’ supported by a tailored mix of ‘carrots and sticks’ to support the market. From the research conducted by HUK it is clear that the choice of decarbonisation options is not done on a sector-by-sector basis that even within companies the decision-making process is site-by-site. This reflects the sensitivity of numerous factors that will ultimately determine the best solution for their site and re-enforces the view that customers must be allowed the choice of decarbonisation options. Hydrogen will play a significant role in decarbonising some of the hardest to abate sectors of the UK economy complimenting the role of electrification CCUS and other decarbonisation technologies. These sectors represent the hardest and therefore most expensive to decarbonise. However hydrogen also provides an opportunity to deliver significant economic growth through a thriving domestic supply chain and so a holistic approach should be applied.

The paper can be found on their website.

The decarbonization of energy systems poses significant challenges to energy networks due to the introduction of new energy vectors and changes in the pattern of energy demand. However this is currently an under-researched area. This paper addresses a gap in the literature by drawing on the socio-technological transitions and multi-system interactions literature to explore the views of experts from industry academia and other sectors about the challenges facing UK energy networks and the possible solutions including taking a more wholistic approach to the planning and operation of dierent networks. Using these frameworks we have demonstrated that systems can be deliberately integrated to interact and solve particular system challenges and have identified the nature of these interactions. The empirical results identify areas of consensus and disagreement about the future development of network infrastructure and regulation. They also highlight how government policy responds to the challenges and opportunities presented by the UK climate targets. The findings show widespread agreement that the UK energy system will become more electrified and decentralized as it incorporates more renewable energy. However the role of gaseous fuels in the energy system is more uncertain with some experts seeing a move from natural gas to hydrogen as being key to maintaining the security of supply while others see little or no role for hydrogen. There is also widespread agreement that the regulatory structure should change to address the challenges facing energy networks with much less agreement on whether this could happen quickly enough. Recent developments indicate the UK Government recognizes the need for regulatory change but it is premature to foresee their success in helping networks be a driver of rather than a barrier to a net-zero energy system.

The ongoing global energy transition spurred by ecological concerns and by evolving political dynamics is necessitating a significant expansion of renewable energy sources. This shift towards renewables is introducing the challenge of heightened energy supply volatility and it underscores the imperative for large-scale storage solutions in order to mitigate fluctuations in demand and supply. This study investigates the potential of Power-to-X (P2X) technologies to address this challenge and it evaluates their technical and socioeconomic implications. Using scenario simulations that leverage the maximum estimated potentials of renewable energy sources relative to demand profiles across different countries we explore the role of P2X integration in the enhancement of energy production. Our analysis highlights the pivotal role of hydrogen in the decarbonization of key industrial sectors such as steel production and heavyduty transportation in the near term. For Germany we observe a reduction in CO2 emissions from 306.26 Mt to 232.28 Mt (-24.15%) and an increase in energy independence as measured by the reduction in primary energy imports from 1150.37 TWh to 887.86 TWh (-22.82%) when comparing the baseline scenario to the most socio-economically favorable scenario. France demonstrates even greater reductions with CO2 emissions decreasing by 37.69% and primary energy imports by 40.46%. Portugal achieves similar reductions with CO2 emissions falling by 38.71% and primary energy imports by 41.81%. However none of the three countries investigated in this study (Germany France and Portugal) achieve full decarbonization and energy independence simultaneously since their respective potential for renewable energy is not sufficiently large. Drawing from these insights and accounting for the unique contexts of each of the three countries we offer tailored policy recommendations for optimizing P2X utilization and enhancing energy production efficiency.

This study explores the feasibility parameters of a potential investment plan for injecting “green” hydrogen into the existing natural gas supply network in Greece. To this end a preliminary profitability optimization analysis was conducted through key performance indicators such as the cost of hydrogen and the socio-environmental benefit of carbon savings followed by break-even and sensitivity analyses. The identification of the major impact drivers of the assessment was based on the examination of a set of operational scenarios of varying hydrogen and natural gas flow rates. The results show that high natural gas capacities with a 5% hydrogen content by volume are the optimal case in terms of socio-economic viability but the overall profitability is too sensitive to hydrogen pricing rendering it unfeasible without additional motives measures and pricing strategies. The results feed into the main challenge of implementing commercial “green” hydrogen infrastructures in the market in a sustainable and feasible manner.

The increasing demand for carbon-free energy in recent years has positioned hydrogen as a viable option. However its current production remains largely dependent on carbon-emitting sources. In this context natural hydrogen generated through geological processes in the Earth’s subsurface has emerged as a promising alternative. The present study provides the first national-scale assessment of natural dihydrogen (H2) potential in Uruguay by developing a catalog of potential H2-generating rocks identifying prospective exploration areas and proposing H2 systems there. The analysis includes a review of geological and geophysical data from basement rocks and onshore sedimentary basins. Uruguay stands out as a promising region for natural H2 exploration due to the significant presence of potential H2-generating rocks in its basement such as large iron formations (BIFs) radioactive rocks and basic and ultrabasic rocks. Additionally the Norte Basin exhibits potential efficient cap rocks including basalts and dolerites with geological analogies to the Mali field. Indirect evidence of H2 in a free gas phase has been observed in the western Norte Basin. This suggests the presence of a potential H2 system in this area linked to the Arapey Formation basalts (seal) and Mesozoic sandstones (reservoir). Furthermore the proposed H2 system could expand exploration opportunities in northeastern Argentina and southern Brazil given the potential presence of similar play/tramp.

Transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energies is imperative for Germany to reduce CO2 emissions and achieve greenhouse gas neutrality by 2045. Green hydrogen holds great potential to contribute to this energy transition by enabling the storage of surplus renewable energy. However Germany's green hydrogen production industry is still in its infancy with only a few green hydrogen plants existing. Studies examining the public's acceptance of green hydrogen production are scarce in this context. Still high societal acceptance can contribute to the future expansion of green hydrogen production in Germany in terms of speed and volume. Therefore our study aims to identify significant factors influencing the German population's acceptance of green hydrogen production within various acceptance groups with differing preferences for future green hydrogen production systems. We conducted an online survey (n=1203) in Germany in 2022/2023 incorporating a choice experiment. Through subsequent latent class analysis four acceptance groups with distinct preferences regarding local green hydrogen production were identified: Unconvinced citizens Security-conscious citizens Regional electricity consumers and Financial beneficiaries. A discriminant analysis identified 9 out of 11 factors as significant for distinguishing between these acceptance groups regarding their preferences for local green hydrogen production: trust in plant safety trust in project managers risk/benefit perception environmental self-identity negative attitude towards renewable energies positive attitude towards renewable energies emotions age and gender. However no significant effects were observed for experience with green hydrogen and distance to the place of residence. Based on our results it is recommended that required renewable energy for green hydrogen production should be produced as close to the green hydrogen plants as possible. It must be ensured and communicated to the public that the (planned) green hydrogen plants meet high safety standards and pose a very low risk of fire or explosion. The neighbouring population should also benefit through annual heating cost savings and financial participation. Implementing these measures can increase acceptance of local green hydrogen production facilitating the transition towards a more sustainable energy future in Germany and beyond.

Under the constraints of the “dual carbon” goals accurately depicting the full life cycle carbon footprint of green hydrogen and its derivatives and quantifying the potential for emission reduction is a prerequisite for hydrogen energy policy and investment decisions. This paper constructs a unified life cycle model covering the entire process from “wind and solar power generation–electrolysis of water to producing hydrogen-synthesis of methanol/ammonia-terminal transportation” and includes the manufacturing stage of key front-end equipment and the negative carbon effect of CO2 capture within a single system boundary and also presents an empirical analysis. The results show that the full life cycle carbon emissions of wind power hydrogen production and photovoltaic hydrogen production are 1.43 kgCO2/kgH2 and 3.17 kgCO2/kgH2 respectively both lower than the 4.9 kg threshold for renewable hydrogen in China. Green hydrogen synthesis of methanol achieves a net negative emission of −0.83 kgCO2/kgCH3OH and the emission of green hydrogen synthesis of ammonia is 0.57 kgCO2/kgNH3. At the same time it is predicted that green hydrogen green ammonia and green methanol can contribute approximately 1766 66.62 and 30 million tons of CO2 emission reduction respectively by 2060 providing a quantitative basis for the large-scale layout and policy formulation of the hydrogen energy industry.