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Requirements for the Safety Assessment for the Approval of a Hydrogen Refueling Station
Sep 2007
Publication
The EC 6th framework research project HyApproval will draft a Handbook which will describe all relevant issues to get approval to construct and operate a Hydrogen Refuelling Station (HRS) for hydrogen vehicles. In WP3 of the HyApproval project it is under investigation which safety information competent authorities require to give a licence to construct an operate an HRS. The paper describes the applied methodology to collect the information from the authorities in 5 EC countries and the USA. The results of the interviews and recommendations for the information to include in the Handbook are presented.
Determination of Clearance Distances for Venting of Hydrogen Storage
Sep 2005
Publication
This paper discusses the results of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling of hydrogen releases and dispersion outdoors during venting of hydrogen storage in real environment and geometry of a hydrogen refuelling or energy station for a given flow rate and dimensions of vent stack. The PHOENICS CFD software package was used to solve the continuity momentum and concentration equations with the appropriate boundary conditions buoyancy model and turbulence models. Also thermal effects resulting from potential ignition of flammable hydrogen clouds were assessed using TNO “Yellow Book” recommended approaches. The obtained results were then applied to determine appropriate clearance distances for venting of hydrogen storage for contribution to code development and station design considerations. CFD modelling of hydrogen concentrations and TNO-based modelling of thermal effects have proven to be reliable effective and relatively inexpensive tools to evaluate the effects of hydrogen releases.
Progress Report 2016: Meeting Carbon Budgets
Jun 2016
Publication
This is the CCC’s eighth annual report on the UK’s progress in meeting carbon budgets.
The report shows that greenhouse gas emissions have fallen rapidly in the UK power sector but that progress has stalled in other sectors such as:
The report also outlines the Committee’s view of key criteria for the government’s ’emissions reduction plan’ published later in 2017
The report shows that greenhouse gas emissions have fallen rapidly in the UK power sector but that progress has stalled in other sectors such as:
- heating in buildings
- transport
- industry
- agriculture
The report also outlines the Committee’s view of key criteria for the government’s ’emissions reduction plan’ published later in 2017
Reducing Emissions in Scotland – 2016 Progress Report
Sep 2016
Publication
This is the Committee’s fifth report on Scotland’s progress towards meeting emission reduction targets as requested by Scottish Ministers under the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009.<br/>The Scottish Act sets a long-term target to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) by at least 80% in 2050 relative to 1990 with an interim target to reduce emissions by 42% in 2020. Secondary legislation passed in October 2010 and October 2011 also set a series of annual emission reduction targets for 2010 to 2022 and 2023 to 2027 respectively. We advised the Scottish Government on annual targets for the period 2028 to 2032 in March 2016 and July 2016.<br/>The report reveals that Scotland’s annual emissions reduction target for 2014 was met with gross Scottish greenhouse gas emissions including international aviation and shipping falling by 8.6% in 2014. This compares to a 7.3% fall for the UK as a whole. Since 1990 gross Scottish emissions have fallen nearly 40% compared to nearly 33% at a UK level.
Reducing Emissions in Northern Ireland
Feb 2019
Publication
In this report the Committee sets out how Northern Ireland can reduce its greenhouse gas emissions between now and 2030 in order to meet UK-wide climate change targets.
The report’s key findings are:
The report’s key findings are:
- Existing policies are not enough to deliver this reduction
- There are excellent opportunities to close this gap and go beyond 35%
- Meeting the cost-effective path to decarbonisation in Northern Ireland will require action across all sectors of the economy and a more joined-up approach
Quantifying Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Apr 2017
Publication
In this report Quantifying Greenhouse Gas Emissions the Committee on Climate Change assesses how the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions are quantified where uncertainties lie and the implications for setting carbon budgets and measuring progress against climate change targets. The report finds that:
- The methodology for constructing the UK’s greenhouse gas inventory is rigorous but the process for identifying improvements could be strengthened.
- There is high confidence over large parts of the inventory. A small number of sectors contribute most to uncertainty and research efforts should be directed at improving these estimates.
- UK greenhouse gas emissions for 2014 were within ±3% of the estimated level with 95% confidence which is a low level of uncertainty by international standards.
- Methodology revisions in recent years have tended to increase estimated emissions but these changes have been within uncertainty margins.
- Statistical uncertainty in the current greenhouse gas inventory is low but could rise in future.
- Uncertainty also arises from sources of emissions not currently included in the inventory and from potential changes to IPCC guidelines.
- Independent external validation of greenhouse gas emissions is important and new monitoring techniques should be encouraged.
- Government should continue to monitor consumption-based greenhouse gas estimates and support continued research to improve methodology and reduce uncertainty in these estimates.
Integral Models for High Pressure Hydrogen - Methane Releases
Sep 2009
Publication
The development of hydrogen as energy carrier is promoted by the increasing in energy demand depletion of fossil resources and the global warming. However this issue relies primarily on the safety aspect which requires the knowledge in the case of gas release of the quantities such as the flammable cloud size release path and the location of the lower flammability limit of the mixture. The integral models for predicting the atmospheric dispersion were extensively used in previous works for low pressure releases such as pollutant and flammable gas transport. In the present investigation this approach is extended to the high pressure gas releases. The model is developed in the non-Boussinesq approximation and is based on Gaussian profiles for buoyant variable density jet or plume in stratified atmosphere with a crossflow. Validations have been performed on a broad range of hydrogen methane and air dispersion cases including vertical or horizontal jets or plumes into a quiescent atmosphere or with crosswind.
Reducing Emissions in Scotland – 2017 Progress Report
Sep 2017
Publication
The Scottish Act sets a long-term target to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) by at least 80% in 2050 relative to 1990 with an interim target to reduce emissions by 42% in 2020. Secondary legislation passed in October 2010 and October 2011 also set a series of annual emission reduction targets for 2010 to 2022 and 2023 to 2027 respectively. We advised the Scottish Government on annual targets for the period 2028 to 2032 in March 2016 and July 2016.<br/>The report reveals that Scotland’s annual emissions reduction target for 2014 was met with gross Scottish greenhouse gas emissions including international aviation and shipping falling by 8.6% in 2014. This compares to a 7.3% fall for the UK as a whole. Since 1990 gross Scottish emissions have fallen nearly 40% compared to nearly 33% at a UK level.
Reducing Emissions in Scotland 2019 Progress Report
Dec 2019
Publication
This is the eighth annual Progress Report to the Scottish Parliament required by Scottish Ministers under the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009. It assesses Scotland’s progress in achieving its legislated targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.<br/>Overall greenhouse gas emissions reduced by 3% in 2017 compared to a 10% fall in 2016. The fall was again led by the power sector due in large part to Scotland’s first full year of coal-free electricity generation. Recent performance in other sectors shows only incremental improvement at best and unless emissions reductions are delivered economy-wide Scotland is at risk of missing its new interim target of a 56% reduction in emissions by 2020. Setting a net-zero greenhouse gas emissions target for 2045 represents a step-change in ambition for Scotland. The Scottish Parliament’s 2030 target to reduce emissions by 75% will be extremely challenging to meet. It must be backed up by steps to drive meaningful emissions reductions immediately.<br/>Scotland’s Programme for Government 2019-20 alongside other recent policies sent a clear signal that the Scottish Government is taking its more ambitious targets seriously but there is much more to do.Scotland’s ability to deliver its net-zero target is contingent on action taken in the UK and vice versa.
Hydrogen in a Low-carbon Economy
Nov 2018
Publication
This report by the Committee on Climate Change (CCC) assesses the potential role of hydrogen in the UK’s low-carbon economy.
It finds that hydrogen:
It finds that hydrogen:
- is a credible option to help decarbonise the UK energy system but its role depends on early Government commitment and improved support to develop the UK’s industrial capability
- can make an important contribution to long-term decarbonisation if combined with greater energy efficiency cheap low-carbon power generation electrified transport and new ‘hybrid’ heat pump systems which have been successfully trialled in the UK
- could replace natural gas in parts of the energy system where electrification is not feasible or is prohibitively expensive for example in providing heat on colder winter days industrial heat processes and back-up power generation
- is not a ‘silver bullet’ solution; the report explores some commonly-held misconceptions highlighting the need for careful planning
- Government must commit to developing a low-carbon heat strategy within the next three years
- Significant volumes of low-carbon hydrogen should be produced in a carbon capture and storage (CCS) ‘cluster’ by 2030 to help the industry grow
- Government must support the early demonstration of the everyday uses of hydrogen in order to establish the practicality of switching from natural gas to hydrogen
- There is low awareness amongst the general public of reasons to move away from natural gas heating to low-carbon alternatives
- A strategy should be developed for low-carbon heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) which encourages a move away from fossil fuels and biofuels to zero-emission solutions by 2050
Safety Demands for Automotive Hydrogen Storage Systems
Sep 2005
Publication
Fuel storage systems for vehicles require a fail-safe design strategy. In case of system failures or accidents the control electronics have to switch the system into a safe operation mode. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) or Failure Tree Analysis (FTA) are performed already in the early design phase in order to minimize the risk of design failures in the fuel storage system. Currently the specifications of requirements for pressurized and liquid hydrogen fuel tanks are based on draft UN-ECE Regulations developed by the European Integrated Hydrogen Project (EIHP). Used materials and accessories shall be compatible with hydrogen. A selection of metallic and non-metallic materials will be presented. Complex components have to be optimised by FEM simulations in order to determine weak spots in the design which will be overstressed in case of pressure thermal expansion or dynamic vibrations. According to automotive standards the performance of liquid hydrogen fuel tank systems has to be verified in various destructive and non-destructive tests.
Effect of Hydrogen on the Tensile Behavior of Austenitic Stainless Steels 316L Produced by Laser-Powder Bed Fusion
Apr 2021
Publication
Hydrogen was doped in austenitic stainless steel (ASS) 316L tensile samples produced by the laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) technique. For this aim an electrochemical method was conducted under a high current density of 100 mA/cm2 for three days to examine its sustainability under extreme hydrogen environments at ambient temperatures. The chemical composition of the starting powders contained a high amount of Ni approximately 12.9 wt.% as a strong austenite stabilizer. The tensile tests disclosed that hydrogen charging caused a minor reduction in the elongation to failure (approximately 3.5% on average) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS; approximately 2.1% on average) of the samples using a low strain rate of 1.2 × 10−4 s−1. It was also found that an increase in the strain rate from 1.2 × 10−4 s−1 o 4.8 ×10−4 s−1 led to a reduction of approximately 3.6% on average for the elongation to failure and 1.7% on average for UTS in the pre-charged samples. No trace of martensite was detected in the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the fractured samples thanks to the high Ni content which caused a minor reduction in UTS × uniform elongation (UE) (GPa%) after the H charging. Considerable surface tearing was observed for the pre-charged sample after the tensile deformation. Additionally some cracks were observed to be independent of the melt pool boundaries indicating that such boundaries cannot necessarily act as a suitable area for the crack propagation.
Experimental Investigation of Hydrogen Jet Fire Mitigation by Barrier Walls
Sep 2009
Publication
Hydrogen jet flames resulting from ignition of unintended releases can be extensive in length and pose significant radiation and impingement hazards. One possible mitigation strategy to reduce exposure to jet flames is to incorporate barriers around hydrogen storage and delivery equipment. While reducing the extent of unacceptable consequences the walls may introduce other hazards if not properly configured. This paper describes experiments carried out to characterize the effectiveness of different barrier wall configurations at reducing the hazards created by jet fires. The hazards that are evaluated are the generation of overpressure during ignition the thermal radiation produced by the jet flame and the effectiveness of the wall at deflecting the flame.<br/>The tests were conducted against a vertical wall (1-wall configuration) and two “3-wall” configurations that consisted of the same vertical wall with two side walls of the same dimensions angled at 135° and 90°. The hydrogen jet impinged on the center of the central wall in all cases. In terms of reducing the radiation heat flux behind the wall the 1-wall configuration performed best followed by the 3-wall 135° configuration and the 3-wall 90°. The reduced shielding efficiency of the three-wall configurations was probably due to the additional confinement created by the side walls that limited the escape of hot gases to the sides of the wall and forced the hot gases to travel over the top of the wall.<br/>The 3-wall barrier with 135° side walls exhibited the best overall performance. Overpressures produced on the release side of the wall were similar to those produced in the 1-wall configuration. The attenuation of overpressure and impulse behind the wall was comparable to that of the three-wall configuration with 90° side walls. The 3-wall 135° configuration’s ability to shield the back side of the wall from the heat flux emitted from the jet flame was comparable to the 1-wall and better than the 3-wall 90° configuration. The ratio of peak overpressure (from in front of the wall and from behind the wall) showed that the 3-wall 135° configuration and the 3-wall 90° configuration had a similar effectiveness. In terms of the pressure mitigation the 3-wall configurations performed significantly better than the 1-wall configuration
Reducing Emissions in Scotland – 2018 Progress Report
Sep 2019
Publication
This is the Committee’s seventh report on Scotland’s progress towards meetings emissions targets as requested by Scottish Ministers under the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009.
Overall Scotland continues to outperform the rest of the UK in reducing its greenhouse gas emissions but successful strategies for energy and waste mask a lack of progress in other parts of the Scottish economy.
The report shows that Scotland’s total emissions fell by 10% in 2016 compared to 2015. The lion’s share of this latest drop in emissions came from electricity generation.
The key findings are:
Overall Scotland continues to outperform the rest of the UK in reducing its greenhouse gas emissions but successful strategies for energy and waste mask a lack of progress in other parts of the Scottish economy.
The report shows that Scotland’s total emissions fell by 10% in 2016 compared to 2015. The lion’s share of this latest drop in emissions came from electricity generation.
The key findings are:
- Overall Scotland met its annual emissions targets in 2016.
- Scotland’s progress in reducing emissions from the power sector masks a lack of action in other areas particularly transport agriculture forestry and land use.
- Low-carbon heat transport agriculture and forestry sector policies need to improve in order to hit 2032 emissions targets.
- The Scottish Government’s Climate Change Plan – published in February 2018 – now has sensible expectations across each sector to reduce emissions.
The New Facility for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Vehicle Safety Evaluation
Sep 2005
Publication
For the evaluation of hydrogen and fuel cell vehicle safety a new comprehensive facility was constructed in our institute. The new facility includes an explosion resistant indoor vehicle fire test building and high pressure hydrogen tank safety evaluation equipment. The indoor vehicle fire test building has sufficient strength to withstand even an explosion of a high pressure hydrogen tank of 260 liter capacity and 70 MPa pressure. It also has enough space to observe vehicle fire flames of not only hydrogen but also other conventional fuels such as gasoline or compressed natural gas. The inside dimensions of the building are a 16 meter height and 18 meter diameter. The walls are made of 1.2 meter thick reinforced concrete covered at the insides with steel plate. This paper shows examples of hydrogen vehicle fires compared with other fuel fires and hydrogen high pressure tank fire tests utilizing several kinds of fire sources. Another facility for evaluation of high pressure hydrogen tank safety includes a 110 MPa hydrogen compressor with a capacity of 200 Nm3/h a 300 MPa hydraulic compressor for burst tests of 70 MPa and higher pressure tanks and so on. This facility will be used for not only the safety evaluation of hydrogen and fuel cell vehicles but also the establishment of domestic/international regulations codes and standards.
Propulsion of a Hydrogen-fuelled LH2 Tanker Ship
Mar 2022
Publication
This study aims to present a philosophical and quantitative perspective of a propulsion system for a large-scale hydrogen-fuelled liquid-hydrogen (LH2) tanker ship. Established methods are used to evaluate the design and performance of an LH2-carrier propulsion system for JAMILA a ship designed with four cylindrical LH2 tanks bearing a total capacity of ~280000 m3 along with cargo and using the boil-off as propulsion and power fuel. Additionally the ship propulsion system is evaluated based on the ship resistance requirements and a hydrogen-fuelled combined-cycle gas turbine is modelled to achieve the dual objectives of high efficiency and zero-carbon footprint. The required inputs primarily involve the off-design and degraded performance of the gas-turbine topping cycle and the proposed power plant operates with a total output power of 50 M.W. The results reveal that the output power allows ship operation at a great speed even with a degraded engine and adverse ambient conditions.
Zero Emission HGV Infrastructure Requirements
May 2019
Publication
The Committee on Climate Change commissioned Ricardo Energy and Environment to carry out research to assess the infrastructure requirements and costs for the deployment of different zero emission heavy goods vehicle (HGV) technology options. The infrastructure considered includes hydrogen refuelling stations ultra-rapid charge points at strategic locations electric overhead recharging infrastructure on the roads and hybrid solutions combining these options.
The research concluded:
It is feasible to build refuelling infrastructure to support the deployment of zero emission HGVs so that they constitute the vast majority of vehicles on the roads by 2050.
Looking at infrastructure alone deploying hydrogen refuelling stations is the cheapest of the options costing a total of £1.7bn in capital expenditure in the time period from now until 2060. The strategic deployment of ultra-rapid charge points is the most expensive at £10.7bn. In all scenarios a significant number of smaller electric HGVs are deployed as these options are available and operating on the streets today. The cost of installing chargers at depots for these vehicles is included.
When the costs of the fuel as well as the infrastructure are included the costs of deploying electricity or hydrogen HGVs are cheaper compared to the continued use of diesel.
Moving to zero-carbon infrastructure for HDVs is a significant challenge and requires planning co-ordination supply chains resource and materials and a skilled workforce as well as strong government policy to enable the market to deliver.
The Report can be found here
The research concluded:
It is feasible to build refuelling infrastructure to support the deployment of zero emission HGVs so that they constitute the vast majority of vehicles on the roads by 2050.
Looking at infrastructure alone deploying hydrogen refuelling stations is the cheapest of the options costing a total of £1.7bn in capital expenditure in the time period from now until 2060. The strategic deployment of ultra-rapid charge points is the most expensive at £10.7bn. In all scenarios a significant number of smaller electric HGVs are deployed as these options are available and operating on the streets today. The cost of installing chargers at depots for these vehicles is included.
When the costs of the fuel as well as the infrastructure are included the costs of deploying electricity or hydrogen HGVs are cheaper compared to the continued use of diesel.
Moving to zero-carbon infrastructure for HDVs is a significant challenge and requires planning co-ordination supply chains resource and materials and a skilled workforce as well as strong government policy to enable the market to deliver.
The Report can be found here
Safety of Hydrogen-fueled Motor Vehicles with IC Engines.
Sep 2005
Publication
Clarification of questions of safety represents a decisive contribution to the successful introduction of vehicles fuelled by hydrogen. At the moment the safety of hydrogen is being discussed and investigated by various bodies. The primary focus is on fuel-cell vehicles with hydrogen stored in gaseous form. This paper looks at the safety of hydrogen-fuelled vehicles with an internal combustion engine and liquefied hydrogen storage. The safety concept of BMW’s hydrogen vehicles is described and the specific aspects of the propulsion and storage concepts discussed. The main discussion emphasis is on the utilization of boil-off parking of the vehicles in an enclosed space and their crash behaviour. Theoretical safety observations are complemented by the latest experimental and test results. Finally reference is made to the topic-areas in the field of hydrogen safety in which cooperative research work could make a valuable contribution to the future of the hydrogen-powered vehicle.
The Future of Hydrogen
Jun 2019
Publication
At the request of the government of Japan under its G20 presidency the International Energy Agency produced this landmark report to analyse the current state of play for hydrogen and to offer guidance on its future development.
The report finds that clean hydrogen is currently enjoying unprecedented political and business momentum with the number of policies and projects around the world expanding rapidly. It concludes that now is the time to scale up technologies and bring down costs to allow hydrogen to become widely used. The pragmatic and actionable recommendations to governments and industry that are provided will make it possible to take full advantage of this increasing momentum.
Hydrogen and energy have a long shared history – powering the first internal combustion engines over 200 years ago to becoming an integral part of the modern refining industry. It is light storable energy-dense and produces no direct emissions of pollutants or greenhouse gases. But for hydrogen to make a significant contribution to clean energy transitions it needs to be adopted in sectors where it is almost completely absent such as transport buildings and power generation.
The Future of Hydrogen provides an extensive and independent survey of hydrogen that lays out where things stand now; the ways in which hydrogen can help to achieve a clean secure and affordable energy future; and how we can go about realising its potential.
Link to Document on IEA Website
The report finds that clean hydrogen is currently enjoying unprecedented political and business momentum with the number of policies and projects around the world expanding rapidly. It concludes that now is the time to scale up technologies and bring down costs to allow hydrogen to become widely used. The pragmatic and actionable recommendations to governments and industry that are provided will make it possible to take full advantage of this increasing momentum.
Hydrogen and energy have a long shared history – powering the first internal combustion engines over 200 years ago to becoming an integral part of the modern refining industry. It is light storable energy-dense and produces no direct emissions of pollutants or greenhouse gases. But for hydrogen to make a significant contribution to clean energy transitions it needs to be adopted in sectors where it is almost completely absent such as transport buildings and power generation.
The Future of Hydrogen provides an extensive and independent survey of hydrogen that lays out where things stand now; the ways in which hydrogen can help to achieve a clean secure and affordable energy future; and how we can go about realising its potential.
Link to Document on IEA Website
UK Business Opportunities of Moving to a Low-carbon Economy
Mar 2017
Publication
The following report accompanies the Committee on Climate Change’s 2017 report on energy prices and bills. It was written by Ricardo Energy and Environment.
The report provides an analysis of the opportunities to UK businesses to supply global markets with low carbon materials and goods and services. The report considers: the position of the current UK low carbon economy the size of the market opportunity for UK businesses in 2030 and 2050 the barriers to UK business capturing a larger share of the global market the opportunity to increase the UK’s share of future global markets
Link to Document
The report provides an analysis of the opportunities to UK businesses to supply global markets with low carbon materials and goods and services. The report considers: the position of the current UK low carbon economy the size of the market opportunity for UK businesses in 2030 and 2050 the barriers to UK business capturing a larger share of the global market the opportunity to increase the UK’s share of future global markets
Link to Document
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