Publications

The high strength of twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steels makes them vulnerable to the hydrogen embrittlement (HE) phenomenon thereby limiting their potential applications. This study suggests inducing a graded grain structure (GGS) in a Fe-17Mn-0.8C TWIP steel through shot peening and subsequent heat treatment to solve the problem. The microstructures and fracture surfaces of GGS TWIP steel were compared with those of conventionally manufactured TWIP steel possessing a uniform grain structure (UGS). Compared with the conventional UGS TWIP steel GGS steel showed similar tensile properties with a yield strength of 310 MPa tensile strength of 1060 MPa and elongation-to-failure of 135%. It also exhibited moderately enhanced low-cycle fatigue (LCF) resistance in terms of fatigue life (8196 cycles to failure) compared with the UGS steel (7201 cycles). Furthermore GGS TWIP steel exhibited a marked improvement in HE resistance both in the monotonic (by a slow-strain-rate test) and cyclic deformation modes (by the LCF test) in a hydrogen environment. A relatively fine-grained (d = 15.6 μm) surficial area enhanced the HE resistance by inhibiting hydrogen penetration and decreasing twin density while the coarse-grained (d = 74.6 μm) interior promoted the LCF resistance by suppressing crack growth

New technological solutions are required to control the impact of the increasing presence of renewable energy sources connected to the electric grid that are characterized by unpredictable production (i.e. wind and solar energy). Energy storage is becoming essential to stabilize the grid when a mismatch between production and demand occurs. Among the available solutions Power to Hydrogen (P2H) is one of the most attractive options. However despite the potential many barriers currently hinder P2H market development. The literature reports general barriers and strategies to overcome them but a specific analysis is fundamental to identifying how these barriers concretely arise in national and regional frameworks since tailored solutions are needed to foster the development of P2H local market. The paper aims to identify and to analyze the existing barriers for P2H market uptake in Italy. The paper shows how several technical regulatory and economic issues are still unsolved resulting in a source of uncertainty for P2H investment. The paper also suggests possible approaches and solutions to address the Italian barriers and to support politics and decision-makers in the definition and implementation of the national hydrogen strategy.

To become climate-neutral by 2050 Europe needs to transform its energy system which accounts for 75% of the EU's greenhouse gas emissions.  The EU strategies for energy system integration and hydrogen adopted today will pave the way towards a more efficient and interconnected energy sector driven by the twin goals of a cleaner planet and a stronger economy.<br/><br/>The two strategies present a new clean energy investment agenda in line with the Commission's Next Generation EU recovery package and the European Green Deal. The planned investments have the potential to stimulate the economic recovery from the coronavirus crisis. They create European jobs and boost our leadership and competitiveness in strategic industries which are crucial to Europe's resilience.

This paper summarizes a series of the authors’ research in the field of assessing the operational degradation of oil and gas transit pipeline steels. Both mechanical and electrochemical properties of steels are deteriorated after operation as is their resistance to environmentally-assisted cracking. The characteristics of resistance to brittle fracture and stress corrosion cracking decrease most intensively which is associated with a development of in-bulk dissipated microdamages of the material. The most sensitive indicators of changes in the material’s state caused by degradation are impact toughness and fracture toughness by the J-integral method. The degradation degree of pipeline steels can also be evaluated nondestructively based on in-service changes in their polarization resistance and potential of the fracture surface. Attention is drawn to hydrogenation of a pipe wall from inside as a result of the electrochemical interaction of pipe metal with condensed moisture which facilitates operational degradation of steel due to the combined action of operating stresses and hydrogen. The development of microdamages along steel texture was evidenced metallographically as a trend to the selective etching of boundaries between adjacent bands of ferrite and pearlite and fractographically by revealing brittle fracture elements on the fracture surfaces namely delamination and cleavage indicating the sites of cohesion weakening between ferrite and pearlite bands. The state of the X52 steel in its initial state and after use for 30 years was assessed based on the numerical simulation method.

Observing the growing energy demand of modern societies many countries have recognized energy security as a looming problem and renewable energies as a solution to this issue. Renewable hydrogen production is an excellent method for the storage and transfer of energy generated by intermittent renewable sources such as wind and solar so that they can be used at a place and time of our choosing. In this study the suitability of 15 cities in Fars province Iran for renewable hydrogen production was investigated and compared by the use of multiple multi-criteria decision-making methods including ARAS SAW CODAS and TOPSIS. The obtained rankings were aggregated by rank averaging Borda method and Copeland method. Finally the partially ordered set ranking technique was used to reach a general consensus about the ranking. The criteria that affect hydrogen production were found to be solar energy potential wind energy potential population air temperature natural disasters altitude relative humidity land cost skilled labor infrastructure topographic condition and distance from main roads. These criteria were weighted using the best–worst method (BWM) based on the data collected by a questionnaire. Solar energy potential was estimated using the Angstrom model. Wind energy potential was estimated by using the Weibull distribution function for each month independently. The results of the multi-criteria decision-making methods showed Izadkhast to be the most suitable location for renewable hydrogen production in the studied area.

Hydrogen is receiving increasing attention as a versatile energy vector to help accelerate the transition to a decarbonised energy future. Gas turbines will continue to play a critical role in providing grid stability and resilience in future low-carbon power systems; however it is recognised that this role is contingent upon achieving increased thermal efficiencies and the ability to operate on carbon-neutral fuels such as hydrogen. An important consideration in the development of gas turbine combustors capable of operating with pure hydrogen or hydrogen-enriched natural gas are the significant changes in thermoacoustic instability characteristics associated with burning these fuels. This article provides a review of the effects of burning hydrogen on combustion dynamics with focus on swirl-stabilised lean-premixed combustors. Experimental and numerical evidence suggests hydrogen can have either a stabilising or destabilising impact on the dynamic state of a combustor through its influence particularly on flame structure and flame position. Other operational considerations such as the effect of elevated pressure and piloting on combustion dynamics as well as recent developments in micromix burner technology for 100% hydrogen combustion have also been discussed. The insights provided in this review will aid the development of instability mitigation strategies for high hydrogen combustion.

The rapid development of science technology and engineering in the 21st century has offered a remarkable rise in our living standards. However at the same time serious environmental issues have emerged such as acid rain and the greenhouse effect which are associated with the ever-increasing need for energy consumption 85% of which comes from fossil fuels combustion. From this combustion process except for energy the main greenhouse gases-carbon dioxide and steam-are produced. Moreover during industrial processes many hazardous gases are emitted. For this reason gas-detecting devices such as electrochemical gas sensors able to analyze the composition of a target atmosphere in real time are important for further improving our living quality. Such devices can help address environmental issues and inform us about the presence of dangerous gases. Furthermore as non-renewable energy sources run out there is a need for energy saving. By analyzing the composition of combustion emissions of automobiles or industries combustion processes can be optimized. This review deals with electrochemical gas sensors based on solid oxide electrolytes which are employed for the detection of hazardous gasses at high temperatures and aggressive environments. The fundamentals the principle of operation and the configuration of potentiometric amperometric combined (amperometric-potentiometric) and mixed-potential gas sensors are presented. Moreover the results of previous studies on carbon oxides (COx) nitrogen oxides (NOx) hydrogen (H2 ) oxygen (O2 ) ammonia (NH3 ) and humidity (steam) electrochemical sensors are reported and discussed. Emphasis is given to sensors based on oxygen ion and proton-conducting electrolytes.

Extreme halophiles offer the advantage to save on the costs of sterilization and water for biohydrogen production from lignocellulosic waste after the pretreatment process with their ability to withstand extreme salt concentrations. This study identifies the dominant hydrogen-producing genera and species among the acclimatized extremely halotolerant microbial communities taken from two salt-damaged soil locations in Khon Kaen and one location from the salt evaporation pond in Samut Sakhon Thailand. The microbial communities’ V3–V4 regions of 16srRNA were analyzed using high-throughput amplicon sequencing. A total of 345 operational taxonomic units were obtained and the high-throughput sequencing confirmed that Firmicutes was the dominant phyla of the three communities. Halanaerobium fermentans and Halanaerobacter lacunarum were the dominant hydrogen-producing species of the communities. Spatial proximity was not found to be a determining factor for similarities between these extremely halophilic microbial communities. Through the study of the microbial communities strategies can be developed to increase biohydrogen molar yield.

Low-cost high-performance coatings for hydrogen production via electrolytic water-splitting are of great importance for de-carbonising energy. In this study the Raney2.0 coating was analysed using various electrochemical techniques to assess its absolute performance and it was confirmed to have an extremely low overpotential for hydrogen evolution of just 28 mV at 10 mA/cm². It was also confirmed to be an acceptable catalyst for oxygen evolution making it the highest performing simple bifunctional electrocatalyst known. The coating exhibits an extremely high capacitance of up to 1.7 F/cm² as well as being able to store 0.61 J/cm² in the form of temporary hydride deposits. A new technique is presented that performs a best-fit of a transient simulation of an equivalent circuit containing a constant phase element to cyclic voltammetry measurements. From this the roughness factor of the coating was calculated to be approximately 40000 which is the highest figure ever reported for this type of material. The coating is therefore an extremely useful improved bifunctional coating for the continued roll-out of alkaline electrolysis for large-scale renewable energy capture via hydrogen production.

As the energy crisis becomes worse hydrogen as a clean energy source is more and more widely used in industrial production and people’s daily life. However there are hidden dangers in hydrogen storage and transportation because of its flammable and explosive features. Gas detection is the key to solving this problem. High quality sensors with more practical and commercial value must be able to accurately detect target gases in the environment. Emerging porous metal-organic framework (MOF) materials can effectively improve the selectivity of sensors as a result of high surface area and coordinated pore structure. The application of MOFs for surface modification to improve the selectivity and sensitivity of metal oxides sensors to hydrogen has been widely investigated. However the influence of MOF modified film thickness on the selectivity of hydrogen sensors is seldom studied. Moreover the mechanism of the selectivity improvement of the sensors with MOF modified film is still unclear. In this paper we prepared nano-sized ZnO particles by a homogeneous precipitation method. ZnO nanoparticle (NP) gas sensors were prepared by screen printing technology. Then a dense ZIF-8 film was grown on the surface of the gas sensor by hydrothermal synthesis. The morphology the composition of the elements and the characters of the product were analyzed by X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) transmission electron microscope (TEM) scanning electron microscope (SEM) energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). It is found that the ZIF-8 film grown for 4 h cannot form a dense core-shell structure. The thickness of ZIF-8 reaches 130 nm at 20 h. Through the detection and analysis of hydrogen (1000 ppm) ethanol (100 ppm) and acetone (50 ppm) from 150 °C to 290 °C it is found that the response of the ZnO@ZIF-8 sensors to hydrogen has been significantly improved while the response to ethanol and acetone was decreased. By comparing the change of the response coefficient when the thickness of ZIF-8 is 130 nm the gas sensor has a significantly improved selectivity to hydrogen at 230 °C. The continuous increase of the thickness tends to inhibit selectivity. The mechanism of selectivity improvement of the sensors with different thickness of the ZIF-8 films is discussed.

Proposed sustainable transition pathways for moving away from natural gas in domestic heating focus on two main energy vectors: electricity and hydrogen. Electrification would be implemented by using vapourcompression heat pumps which are currently experiencing market growth in many countries. On the other hand hydrogen could substitute natural gas in boilers or be used in thermally–driven absorption heat pumps. In this paper a consistent thermodynamic and economic methodology is developed to assess the competitiveness of these options. The three technologies along with the option of district heating are for the first time compared for different weather/ambient conditions and fuel-price scenarios first from a homeowner’s and then from a wholeenergy system perspective. For the former two-dimensional decision maps are generated to identify the most cost-effective technologies for different combinations of fuel prices. It is shown that in the UK hydrogen technologies are economically favourable if hydrogen is supplied to domestic end-users at a price below half of the electricity price. Otherwise electrification and the use of conventional electric heat pumps will be preferred. From a whole-energy system perspective the total system cost per household (which accounts for upstream generation and storage as well as technology investment installation and maintenance) associated with electric heat pumps varies between 790 and 880 £/year for different scenarios making it the least-cost decarbonisation pathway. If hydrogen is produced by electrolysis the total system cost associated with hydrogen technologies is notably higher varying between 1410 and 1880 £/year. However this total system cost drops to 1150 £/year with hydrogen produced cost-effectively by methane reforming and carbon capture and storage thus reducing the gap between electricity- and hydrogen-driven technologies.

To maximise power density practical gas turbine combustion systems have several injectors which can lead to complex interactions between flames. However our knowledge about the effect of flame-flame interactions on the flame response the essential element to predict the stability of a combustor is still limited. The present study investigates the effect of hydrogen enrichment flame-flame interaction confinement and asymmetries on the linear and non-linear acoustic response of three premixed flames in a simple can combustor. A parametric study of the linear response characterised by the flame transfer function (FTF) is performed for swirling and non-swirling flames. Flame-flame interactions were achieved by changing the injector spacing and the level of hydrogen enrichment by power from 10 to 50%. It was found that the latter had the most significant effect on the flame response. Asymmetry effects were investigated by changing one of the flames by using a different bluff-body to alter both the flame shape and flow field. The global flame response showed that the asymmetric cases can be reconstructed using a superposition of the two symmetric cases where all three bluff-bodies and flames are the same. Overall the linear response characterised by the flame transfer function (FTF) showed that the effect of increasing the level of hydrogen enrichment is more pronounced than the effect of the injector spacing. Increasing hydrogen enrichment results in more compact flames which minimises flame-flame interactions. More compact flames increase the cut-off frequency which can lead to self-excited modes at higher frequencies. Finally the non-linear response was characterised by measuring the flame describing function (FDF) at a frequency close to a self-excited mode of the combustor for different injector spacings and levels of hydrogen enrichment. It is shown that increasing the hydrogen enrichment leads to higher saturation amplitude whereas the effect of injector spacing has a comparably smaller effect.

These two joint reports required under the Environment (Wales) Act 2016 provide ministers with advice on Wales’ climate targets between now and 2050 and assess progress on reducing emissions to date. Our advice to the Welsh Government is set out in two parts:

Advice Report: The path to a Net Zero Wales provides recommendations on the actions that are needed in Wales including the legislation of a Net Zero target and package of policies to deliver it.

Progress Report: Reducing emissions in Wales looks back at the progress made in Wales since the 2016 Environment (Wales) Act was passed and assesses whether Wales is on track to meet its currently legislated emissions reductions targets.

This work is based on an extensive programme of analysis consultation and consideration by the Committee and its staff building on the evidence published last year for our Net Zero report. It is compatible with our advice on the UK’s Sixth Carbon Budget. In support of the advice in this report we have also published:

• All the charts and data behind the report as well as a separate dataset for the scenarios which sets out more details and data on the pathways than can be included in this report.
• A public Call for Evidence several new research projects three expert advisory groups and deep dives into the roles of local authorities and businesses.

Greenhouse gas emissions need to be drastically reduced to mitigate the environmental impacts caused by climate change and to lead to a transformation of the European energy system. A model landscape consisting of four final energy consumption sector models with high spatial (NUTS-3) and temporal (hourly) resolution and the multi-energy system model ISAaR is extended and applied to investigate the transformation pathway of the European energy sector in the deep emission mitigation scenario solidEU. The solidEU scenario describes not only the techno-economic but also the socio-political contexts and it includes the EU27 + UK Norway and Switzerland. The scenario analysis shows that volatile renewable energy sources (vRES) dominate the energy system in 2050. In addition the share of flexible sector coupling technologies increases to balance electricity generation from vRES. Seasonal differences are balanced by hydrogen storage with a seasonal storage profile. The deployment rates of vRES in solidEU show that a fast profound energy transition is necessary to achieve European climate protection goals.

Prestressing steel wires are highly susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement (HE). Residual stress-strain state produced after wire drawing plays an essential role since hydrogen damage at certain places of the material is directly affected by stress and strain fields. Changes in wire drawing conditions modify the stress and strain fields and consequently the HE susceptibility and life in service of these structural components in the presence of a hydrogenating environment. This paper analyzes the distributions of residual stress and plastic strain obtained after diverse drawing conditions (inlet die angle die bearing length varying die angle and straining path) and their influence on HE susceptibility of the wires. The conditions for industrial cold drawing can thus be optimized thereby producing commercial prestressing steel wires with improved performance against HE phenomena.

The Australian transport sector is under increasing pressure to reduce carbon emissions whilst also managing a fuel supply chain that relies heavily on foreign import partners.



Transport in Australia equates to a significant proportion (approximately 18%) of the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions. Due to ongoing population growth these emissions have been steadily rising with the increase of cars on our roads and freight trucks in transit. Coupled with this the transport fuel supply chain is highly reliant on overseas partners – Australia currently imports 90% of its liquid fuel. These two challenges present an interesting dichotomy for the industry incentivising research and development into new technologies that can address one or both of these issues.



Hydrogen is one technology that has the potential to provide a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions as well as a more reliable domestic fuel supply. Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are an emerging zero-emission alternative for the transport sector which offer a variety of benefits.



Available from the Energy Ministers Website link here

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (FTS) is an increasingly important approach for producing liquid fuels and chemicals via syngas—that is synthesis gas a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen—generated from coal natural gas or biomass. In FTS dispersed transition metal nanoparticles are used to catalyze the reactions underlying the formation of carbon-carbon bonds. Catalytic activity and selectivity are strongly correlated with the electronic and geometric structure of the nanoparticles which depend on the particle size morphology and crystallographic phase of the nanoparticles. In this article we review recent works dealing with the aspects of bulk and surface sensitivity of the FTS reaction. Understanding the different catalytic behavior in more detail as a function of these parameters may guide the design of more active selective and stable FTS catalysts.

Proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysers (PEMEL) are key for converting and storing excess renewable energy. PEMEL water electrolysis offers benefits over alkaline water electrolysers including a large dynamic range high responsiveness and high current densities and pressures. High operating pressures are important because it contributes to reduce the costs and energy-use related to downstream mechanical compression. In this work the performance of a high-pressure PEMEL system has been characterized up to 180 bar. The electrolyser stack has been characterized with respect to electrochemical performance net H2 production rate and water crossover and the operability and performance of the thermal- and gas management systems of the test bench has been assessed. The tests show that the voltage increase upon pressurization from 5 to 30 bar is 30 % smaller than expected but further pressurization reduces performance. The study confirms that highpressure PEMEL has higher energy consumption than state-of-the-art electrolyser systems with mechanical compressors. However there can be a business case for high-pressure PEMEL if the trade-off between stack efficiency and system efficiency is balanced.

The deployment of low-emission alternative fuels is crucial to decarbonise the transport sector. A number of alternatives like hydrogen or dimethyl ether/methanol synthesised using CO2 as feedstock for fuel production (hereafter refer to “CO2-based fuels”) have been proposed to combat climate change. However the decarbonisation potential of CO2-based fuels is under debate because CO2 is re-emitted to the atmosphere when the fuel is combusted; and the majority of hydrogen still relies on fossil resources which makes its prospects of being a low-carbon fuel dependent on its manufacturing process. First this paper investigates the relative economic and environmental performance of hydrogen (produced from conventional steam methane reforming and produced via electrolysis using renewable energy) and CO2- based fuels (dimethyl ether and methanol) considering the full carbon cycle. The results reveal that hydrogen produced from steam methane reforming is the most economical option and that hydrogen produced via electrolysis using renewables has the best environmental profile. Whereas the idea of CO2-based fuels has recently gained much interest it has for the foreseeable future rather limited practical relevance since there is no favourable combination of cost and environmental performance. This will only change in the long run and requires that CO2 is of non-fossil origin i.e. from biomass combustion or captured from air. Second this paper address unresolved methodological issues in the assessment of CO2-based fuels such as the possible allocation of emissions to the different sectors involved. The outcomes indicate that implementing different allocation approaches substantially influences the carbon footprint of CO2-based fuels. To avoid allocation issues expanding the boundaries including the entire system and is therefore recommended.

Hydrogen has seen unprecedented development in the year 2020. From innovative niche technology it is fast becoming a systemic element in the European Union’s (EU) efforts to transition to a climate-neutral society in 2050. It will become a crucial energy vector and the other leg of the energy transition – alongside renewable electricity – by replacing coal oil and gas across different segments of the economy. The rapid development of hydrogen is important for meeting the EU’s climate objectives and preserving and enhancing the EU’s industrial and economic competitiveness securing jobs and value creation in this high-tech sector.

Europe is currently leading in hydrogen technology and European companies and knowledge institutions can be instrumental in advancing technological developments and industrial scale-up. It is imperative that Europe maintains this leadership position and seizes the current momentum for hydrogen technologies. The EU is well placed to become the birthplace of a global hydrogen economy denominated in Euro currency.

It is time that hydrogen moves from an afterthought to a central pillar of the energy system. The “Fit for 55 Package” presents a unique opportunity to begin putting into place a concrete and fit for purpose framework for the development of a clean hydrogen economy. In this paper you will find Hydrogen Europe’s recommendations on how hydrogen can:

• Unleash the potential of renewables.
• Bring “efficiency” to the energy “system” of the future.
• Enable a carbon-neutral transport system.

The Oxford Institute for Energy Studies held a Workshop on “The Future of Gas Networks” to examine decarbonisation plans and the impact of the potential growth in the use of renewable and decarbonised gases in Europe. Participants included representatives from nine European gas network companies (both transmission and distribution) technical experts in decarbonisation regulators government officials and academics. This document summarises the seven key issues for debate arising from the Workshop discussions:

• The major gas networks recognise the need to prepare for and facilitate decarbonisation.
• The route to decarbonisation can take many forms though hydrogen is likely to feature in most networks. In larger countries solutions are likely to be regional rather than national.
• There are a number of pilot projects and targets/aspirations for 2050 – there is less clarity on how the targets will be achieved or on who will lead.
• Regulation is a key issue. In most countries existing regulatory objectives may need changing in order to align with government decarbonisation aspirations and the achievement of targets.
• There is a lack of consensus on whether and how market models might need to adapt.
• Detailed stakeholder analysis – and in particular customer attitudes – will be required.
• There are a range of important technical issues including standardisation data quality and transparency verification and certification to be considered.

Link to document on Oxford Institute for Energy Studies website

Due to the low density of hydrogen gas under ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions the high-pressure gaseous hydrogen storage method is widely employed. With high-pressure characteristics of hydrogen storage rigorous safety precautions are required such as filling of compressed gas in a hydrogen tank to achieve reliable operational solutions. Especially for the large-sized tanks (above 150 L) safety operation of hydrogen storage should be considered. In the present study the compressed hydrogen gas behavior in a large hydrogen tank of 175 L is investigated for its filling. To validate the numerical approach used in this study numerical models for the adaptation of the gas and turbulence models are examined. Numerical parametric studies on hydrogen filling for the large hydrogen tank of 175 L are conducted to estimate the hydrogen gas behavior in the hydrogen tank under various conditions of state of charge of pressure and ambient temperature. From the parametric studies the relationship between the initial SOC pressure condition and the maximum temperature rise of hydrogen gas was shown. That is the maximum temperature rise increases as the ambient temperature decreases and the rise increases as the SOC decreases.

The computational thermodynamic analysis of a samarium oxide-based two-step solar thermochemical water splitting cycle is reported. The analysis is performed using HSC chemistry software and databases. The first (solar-based) step drives the thermal reduction of Sm2O3 into Sm and O2. The second (non-solar) step corresponds to the production of H2 via a water splitting reaction and the oxidation of Sm to Sm2O3. The equilibrium thermodynamic compositions related to the thermal reduction and water splitting steps are determined. The effect of oxygen partial pressure in the inert flushing gas on the thermal reduction temperature (TH) is examined. An analysis based on the second law of thermodynamics is performed to determine the cycle efficiency (ηcycle) and solar-to-fuel energy conversion efficiency (ηsolar´to´fuel) attainable with and without heat recuperation. The results indicate that ηcycle and ηsolar´to´fuel both increase with decreasing TH due to the reduction in oxygen partial pressure in the inert flushing gas. Furthermore the recuperation of heat for the operation of the cycle significantly improves the solar reactor efficiency. For instance in the case where TH = 2280 K ηcycle = 24.4% and ηsolar´to´fuel = 29.5% (without heat recuperation) while ηcycle = 31.3% and ηsolar´to´fuel = 37.8% (with 40% heat recuperation).

To limit the global temperature change to no more than 2 ◦C by reducing global emissions the European Union (EU) set up a goal of a 20% improvement on energy efficiency a 20% cut of greenhouse gas emissions and a 20% share of energy from renewable sources by 2020 (10% share of renewable energy (RE) specifically in the transport sector). By 2030 the goal is a 27% improvement in energy efficiency a 40% cut of greenhouse gas emissions and a 27% share of RE. However the integration of RE in energy system faces multiple challenges. The geographical distribution of energy supply changes significantly the availability of the primary energy source (wind solar water) and is the determining factor rather than where the consumers are. This leads to an increasing demand to match supply and demand for power. Especially intermittent RE like wind and solar power face the issue of energy production unrelated to demand (issue of excess energy production beyond demand and/or grid capacity) and forecast errors leading to an increasing demand for grid services like balancing power. Megawatt electrolyzer units (beyond 3 MW) can provide a technical solution to convert large amounts of excess electricity into hydrogen for industrial applications substitute for natural gas or the decarbonization of the mobility sector. The demonstration of successful MW electrolyzer operation providing grid services under dynamic conditions as request by the grid can broaden the opportunities of new business models that demonstrate the profitability of an electrolyzer in these market conditions. The aim of this work is the demonstration of a technical solution utilizing Pressurized Alkaline Electrolyzer (PAE) technology for providing grid balancing services and harvesting Renewable Energy Sources (RES) under realistic circumstances. In order to identify any differences between local market and grid requirements the work focused on a demonstration site located in Austria deemed as a viable business case for the operation of a largescale electrolyzer. The site is adapted to specific local conditions commonly found throughout Europe. To achieve this this study uses a market-based solution that aims at providing value-adding services and cash inflows stemming from the grid balancing services it provides. Moreover the work assesses the viability of various business cases by analyzing (qualitatively and quantitatively) additional business models (in terms of business opportunities/energy source potential grid service provision and hydrogen demand) and analyzing the value and size of the markets developing recommendations for relevant stakeholder to decrease market barriers.

Owing to their extremely high energy density single-bonded polymeric nitrogen and atomic metallic hydrogen are generally regarded as the ultimate energetic materials. Although their syntheses normally require ultrahigh pressures of several hundred gigapascals (GPa) which prohibit direct materials application research on their stability metastability and fundamental properties are valuable for seeking extreme energetic materials through alternative synthetic routes. Various crystalline and amorphous polymeric nitrogens have been discovered between 100 and 200 GPa. Metastability at ambient conditions has been demonstrated for some of these phases. Cubic-gauche and black-phosphorus polymorphs of single-bonded nitrogen are two particularly interesting phases. Their large hystereses warrant further application-inspired basic research of nitrogen. In contrast although metallic hydrogen contains the highest-estimated energy density its picosecond lifetime and picogram quantity make its practical material application impossible at present. “Metallic hydrogen” remains a curiosity-driven basic research pursuit focusing on the pressure-induced evolution of the molecular hydrogen crystal and its electronic band structure from a low-density insulator with a very wide electronic band gap to a semiconductor with a narrow gap to a dense molecular metal and atomic metal and eventually to a previously unknown exotic state of matter. This great experimental challenge is driving relentless advancement in ultrahigh-pressure science and technology.