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Incentive Structures for Power-to-X and E-fuel Pathways for Transport in EU and Member States
Jun 2022
Publication
Though Power-to-X pathways primarily Power-to-Liquids attract interest as solutions for decarbonising parts of the transport sector that are not suitable for electrification the regulatory framework until recently slowed down their implementation. This paper examines the updates in the main aspects of the legal framework in the European Union from 2019 to the beginning of 2022 related to Power-to-X: support schemes specific targets and potential barriers. The results show increasing interest and market entrance of electrolysis and push from the different actors and regulatory parties to establish solutions that will enable faster upscaling. However it is visible from the National Energy and Climate Plans and hydrogen strategies that the most emphasis is still on hydrogen as an end fuel for personal vehicles or power-to-gas. On the other hand few countries have implemented legal frameworks facilitating diverse PtX pathways without focusing solely on hydrogen. Nevertheless revisions of RED II have finally set up specific targets for electrofuels and Fit for 55 has introduced new actions supporting electrofuels in aviation and marine transport.
High Technical and Temporal Resolution Integrated Energy System Modelling of Industrial Decarbonisation
Aug 2022
Publication
Owing to the complexity of the sector industrial activities are often represented with limited technological resolution in integrated energy system models. In this study we enriched the technological description of industrial activities in the integrated energy system analysis optimisation (IESA-Opt) model a peer-reviewed energy system optimisation model that can simultaneously provide optimal capacity planning for the hourly operation of all integrated sectors. We used this enriched model to analyse the industrial decarbonisation of the Netherlands for four key activities: high-value chemicals hydrocarbons ammonia and steel production. The analyses performed comprised 1) exploring optimality in a reference scenario; 2) exploring the feasibility and implications of four extreme industrial cases with different technological archetypes namely a bio-based industry a hydrogen-based industry a fully electrified industry and retrofitting of current assets into carbon capture utilisation and storage; and 3) performing sensitivity analyses on key topics such as imported biomass hydrogen and natural gas prices carbon storage potentials technological learning and the demand for olefins. The results of this study show that it is feasible for the energy system to have a fully bio-based hydrogen-based fully electrified and retrofitted industry to achieve full decarbonisation while allowing for an optimal technological mix to yield at least a 10% cheaper transition. We also show that owing to the high predominance of the fuel component in the levelled cost of industrial products substantial reductions in overnight investment costs of green technologies have a limited effect on their adoption. Finally we reveal that based on the current (2022) energy prices the energy transition is cost-effective and fossil fuels can be fully displaced from industry and the national mix by 2050
Design and Implementation of an Intelligent Energy Management System for Smart Home Utilizing a Multi-agent System
Jul 2022
Publication
Green Hydrogen Microgrid System has been selected as a source of clean and renewable alternative energy because it is undergoing a global revolution and has been identified as a source of clean energy that may aid the country in achieving net-zero emissions in the coming years. The study proposes an innovative Microgrid Renewable hybrid system to achieve these targets. The proposed hybrid renewable energy system combines a photovoltaic generator (PVG) a fuel cell (FC) a supercapacitor (SC) and a home vehicle power supply (V2H) to provide energy for a predefined demand. The proposed architecture is connected to the grid and is highly dependent on solar energy during peak periods. During the night or shading period it uses FC as a backup power source. The SC assists the FC with high charge power. SC performs this way during load transients or quick load changes. A multi-agent system (MAS) was used to build a real energy management system (RT-HEMS) for intelligent coordination between components (MAS). The scheduling algorithm reduces energy consumption by managing the required automation devices without the need for additional network power. It will meet household energy requirements regardless of weather conditions including bright cloudy or rainy conditions. Implementation and discussion of the RT-HEMS ensures that the GHS is functioning properly and that the charge request is satisfied.
Optimal Planning of Hybrid Electricity–Hydrogen Energy Storage System Considering Demand Response
Mar 2023
Publication
In recent years the stability of the distribution network has declined due to the large proportion of the uses of distributed generation (DG) with the continuous development of renewable energy power generation technology. Meanwhile the traditional distribution network operation mode cannot keep the balance of the source and load. The operation mode of the active distribution network (ADN) can effectively reduce the decline in operation stability caused by the high proportion of DG. Therefore this work proposes a bi-layer model for the planning of the electricity–hydrogen hybrid energy storage system (ESS) considering demand response (DR) for ADN. The upper layer takes the minimum load fluctuation maximum user purchase cost satisfaction and user comfort as the goals. Based on the electricity price elasticity matrix model the optimal electricity price formulation strategy is obtained for the lower ESS planning. In the lower layer the optimal ESS planning scheme is obtained with the minimum life cycle cost (LCC) of ESS the voltage fluctuation of ADN and the load fluctuation as the objectives. Finally the MOPSO algorithm is used to test the model and the correctness of the proposed method is verified by the extended IEEE-33 node test system. The simulation results show that the fluctuation in the voltage and load is reduced by 62.13% and 37.06% respectively.
Sizing of Hybrid Supercapacitors and Lithium-Ion Batteries for Green Hydrogen Production from PV in the Australian Climate
Feb 2023
Publication
Instead of storing the energy produced by photovoltaic panels in batteries for later use to power electric loads green hydrogen can also be produced and used in transportation heating and as a natural gas alternative. Green hydrogen is produced in a process called electrolysis. Generally the electrolyser can generate hydrogen from a fluctuating power supply such as renewables. However due to the startup time of the electrolyser and electrolyser degradation accelerated by multiple shutdowns an idle mode is required. When in idle mode the electrolyser uses 10% of the rated electrolyser load. An energy management system (EMS) shall be applied where a storage technology such as a lithium-ion capacitor or lithium-ion battery is used. This paper uses a state-machine EMS of PV microgrid for green hydrogen production and energy storage to manage the hydrogen production during the morning from solar power and in the night using the stored energy in the energy storage which is sized for different scenarios using a lithium-ion capacitor and lithium-ion battery. The mission profile and life expectancy of the lithium-ion capacitor and lithium-ion battery are evaluated considering the system’s local irradiance and temperature conditions in the Australian climate. A tradeoff between storage size and cutoffs of hydrogen production as variables of the cost function is evaluated for different scenarios. The lithium-ion capacitor and lithium-ion battery are compared for each tested scenario for an optimum lifetime. It was found that a lithium-ion battery on average is 140% oversized compared to a lithium-ion capacitor but a lithium-ion capacitor has a smaller remaining capacity of 80.2% after ten years of operation due to its higher calendar aging while LiB has 86%. It was also noticed that LiB is more affected by cycling aging while LiC is affected by calendar aging. However the average internal resistance after 10 years for the lithium-ion capacitor is 264% of the initial internal resistance while for lithium-ion battery is 346% making lithium-ion capacitor a better candidate for energy storage if it is used for grid regulation as it requires maintaining a lower internal resistance over the lifetime of the storage.
A Review on Environmental Efficiency Evaluation of New Energy Vehicles Using Life Cycle Analysis
Mar 2022
Publication
New energy vehicles (NEVs) especially electric vehicles (EVs) address the important task of reducing the greenhouse effect. It is particularly important to measure the environmental efficiency of new energy vehicles and the life cycle analysis (LCA) model provides a comprehensive evaluation method of environmental efficiency. To provide researchers with knowledge regarding the research trends of LCA in NEVs a total of 282 related studies were counted from the Web of Science database and analyzed regarding their research contents research preferences and research trends. The conclusion drawn from this research is that the stages of energy resource extraction and collection carrier production and energy transportation maintenance and replacement are not considered to be research links. The stages of material equipment and car transportation and operation equipment settling and forms of use need to be considered in future research. Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs) vehicle type classification the water footprint battery recovery and reuse and battery aging are the focus of further research and comprehensive evaluation combined with more evaluation methods is the direction needed for the optimization of LCA. According to the results of this study regarding EV and hybrid power vehicles (including plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEV) hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and extended range electric vehicles (EREV)) well-to-wheel (WTW) average carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions have been less than those in the same period of gasoline internal combustion engine vehicles (GICEV). However EV and hybrid electric vehicle production CO2 emissions have been greater than those during the same period of GICEV and the total CO2 emissions of EV have been less than during the same period of GICEV.
Parametric Study and Electrocatalyst of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Electrolysis Performance
Jan 2023
Publication
An investigation was conducted to determine the effects of operating parameters for various electrode types on hydrogen gas production through electrolysis as well as to evaluate the efficiency of the polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer. Deionized (DI) water was fed to a single-cell PEM electrolyzer with an active area of 36 cm2 . Parameters such as power supply (50–500 mA/cm2 ) feed water flow rate (0.5–5 mL/min) water temperature (25−80 ◦C) and type of anode electrocatalyst (0.5 mg/cm2 PtC [60%] 1.5 mg/cm2 IrRuOx with 1.5 mg/cm2 PtB 3.0 mg/cm2 IrRuOx and 3.0 mg/cm2 PtB) were varied. The effects of these parameter changes were then analyzed in terms of the polarization curve hydrogen flowrate power consumption voltaic efficiency and energy efficiency. The best electrolysis performance was observed at a DI water feed flowrate of 2 mL/min and a cell temperature of 70 ◦C using a membrane electrode assembly that has a 3.0 mg/cm2 IrRuOx catalyst at the anode side. This improved performance of the PEM electrolyzer is due to the reduction in activation as well as ohmic losses. Furthermore the energy consumption was optimal when the current density was about 200 mA/cm2 with voltaic and energy efficiencies of 85% and 67.5% respectively. This result indicates low electrical energy consumption which can lower the operating cost and increase the performance of PEM electrolyzers. Therefore the optimal operating parameters are crucial to ensure the ideal performance and durability of the PEM electrolyzer as well as lower its operating costs.
Combustion Regimes of Hydrogen-air-steam Mixtures
Sep 2021
Publication
In the case of a severe nuclear power plant accident hydrogen gas formation may occur from the core degradation and cooling water evaporation and subsequent oxidation of zircaloy. These phenomena increase the risk of hazardous combustion events in the reactor especially when combined with an ignition source. If not handled carefully these types of accidents can cause severe damage to the reactor building with potential radioactive effects on the environment. Although hydrogen-air combustion has been investigated before hydrogen-air-steam mixtures remain unstudied under reactor-like conditions. Thus this study investigated such mixtures’ combustion regimes. A closed tube of 318 liters (7.65m tall and 0.23m inner diameter) measures the flame speed flame propagation and shock wave behaviors for 11-15 %vol hydrogen mixtures combined with 0 20 or 30 %vol steam and air. Thus both the effect of steam and hydrogen content was investigated and compared. The experimental setup combined photomultiplier tubes pressure sensors and shock detectors to give a full view of the different combustion regimes. A number of obstacles changed the in-chamber turbulence during flame propagation to provide further reactor-like environments. This changed turbulence affected the combustion regimes and enhanced the flame speed for some cases. The results showed varying combustion behaviors depending on the water vapor concentration where a higher concentration meant a lower flame speed reduced pressure load and sometimes combustion extinction. At 0 %vol steam dilution the flame speed remained supersonic for all H2 concentrations while at 30 %vol steam dilution the flame speed remained subsonic for all H2 concentrations. Thus with high levels of steam dilution the risk for shock waves leading to potential reactor building destruction decreases."
Exergy Estimate of a Novel Hybrid Solar-gas Power and Organic Rankine Cycle-based Hydrogen-production System
Mar 2022
Publication
This study proposes a novel hybrid solar-gas power and hydrogen-production system which is comprised by the solar tower thermal system gas-steam turbine combined cycle and organic Rankine cycle-based hydrogen-production system. Based on the Ebsilon code the operation processes of the hybrid system are simulated. The results show that the output power and electric efficiency of the hybrid system are 103.9 MW and 41.3% and the daily hydrogen output is 62.2 kg. The operation simulation results of the hybrid system reveal that the gas-steam combined cycle and solar island can both achieve stable operations and the power generation section and hydrogen-production device can both work effectively which means the hybrid system is technically feasible. The exergy estimate results of the hybrid system show that the combustion chamber and solar receiver have the two largest exergy destructions which are 56.5 MW and 45.3 MW. That means the performances of the two components can be further improved. For the hydrogen-production system the exergy destructions of the proton exchange membrane electrolyzer turbine condenser and evaporator of the organic Rankine cycle are 0.156 MW 0.111 MW 2.338 MW and 1.891 MW and the corresponding exergy efficiencies are 51.2% 92.6% 80.7% and 79.5% respectively.
NewGasMet - Flow Metering of Renewable Gases (Biogas, Biomethane, Hydrogen, Syngas and Mixtures with Natural Gas): Effect of the Renewable Gases on the Uncertainty Budgets of Gas Meters
Sep 2022
Publication
During the study of the CEN/TC 237 standards “Gas meters” in the European Metrology Programme for Innovation and Research (EMPIR) project named NEWGASMET the impact of the renewable gases (biogas biomethane hydrogen syngas and mixtures with natural gas) on the uncertainty on the gas meter was discussed and described in several recommendation reports. This report is on the activity A2.1.15 where the objective is “Using input from A2.1.2-A2.1.8 FORCE with support from Cesame CMI NEL PTB VSL and ISSI will write a report on the effects of renewable gases on the uncertainty budgets of gas meters.”
Optimising Fuel Supply Chains within Planetary Boundaries: A Case Study of Hydrogen for Road Transport in the UK
Jul 2020
Publication
The world-wide sustainability implications of transport technologies remain unclear because their assessment often relies on metrics that are hard to interpret from a global perspective. To contribute to filling this gap here we apply the concept of planetary boundaries (PBs) i.e. a set of biophysical limits critical for operating the planet safely to address the optimal design of sustainable fuel supply chains (SCs) focusing on hydrogen for vehicle use. By incorporating PBs into a mixed-integer linear programming model (MILP) we identify SC configurations that satisfy a given transport demand while minimising the PBs transgression level i.e. while reducing the risk of surpassing the ecological capacity of the Earth. On applying this methodology to the UK we find that the current fossil-based sector is unsustainable as it transgresses the energy imbalance CO2 concentration and ocean acidification PBs heavily i.e. five to 55-fold depending on the downscale principle. The move to hydrogen would help to reduce current transgression levels substantially i.e. reductions of 9–86% depending on the case. However it would be insufficient to operate entirely within all the PBs concurrently. The minimum impact SCs would produce hydrogen via water electrolysis powered by wind and nuclear energy and store it in compressed form followed by distribution via rail which would require as much as 37 TWh of electricity per year. Our work unfolds new avenues for the incorporation of PBs in the assessment and optimisation of energy systems to arrive at sustainable solutions that are entirely consistent with the carrying capacity of the planet.
Role of Low Carbon Emission H2 in the Energy Transition of Colombia: Environmental Assessment of H2 Production Pathways for a Certification Scheme
Oct 2022
Publication
Hydrogen (H2) is a low-carbon carrier. Hence measuring the impact of its supply chain is key to guaranteeing environmental benefits. This research proposes a classification of H2 in Colombia based on its carbon footprint and source. Such environmental characterization enables the design of regulatory instruments to incentivize the demand for low carbon-H2. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was used to determine the carbon footprint of H2 production technologies. Based on our LCA four classes of H2 were defined based on the emission threshold: (i) gray-H2 (21.8 - 17.0 kg CO2-eq/kg H2) (ii) low carbon-H2 (4.13 – 17.0 kg CO2-eq/kg H2) (iii) blue-H2 (<4.13 kg CO2-eq/kg H2) and (iv) green-H2 (<4.13 kg CO2-eq/kg H2). While low carbon-H2 could be employed to reduce 22% of the national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as defined in the National Determined Contribution (NDC) both blue and green-H2 could be employed for national and international trade since the standard emissions are aligned with international schemes such as CertifHy and the Chinese model. Besides gasification of biomass results in environmental savings indicating that biomass is a promising feedstock for international and local trade. Furthermore combinations of H2 production technologies such as renewable-based electrolysis natural gas steam reforming with CCS and ethanol conversion were evaluated to explore the production of a combination of green- and blue-H2 to meet the current and future demand of low carbon emission H2 in Colombia. However to comply with the proposed carbon emission threshold the installed capacities of solar and wind energies must be increase.
Green Hydrogen Production Potential in West Africa – Case of Niger
Jul 2022
Publication
Niger offers the possibility of producing green hydrogen due to its high solar energy potential. Due to the still growing domestic oil and coal industry the use of green hydrogen in the country currently seems unlikely at the higher costs of hydrogen as an energy vector. However the export of green hydrogen to industrialized countries could be an option. In 2020 a hydrogen partnership has been established between Germany and Niger. The potential import of green hydrogen represents an option for Germany and other European countries to decarbonize domestic energy supply. Currently there are no known projects for the electrolytic production of hydrogen in Niger. In this work potential hydrogen demand across electricity and transport sectors is forecasted until 2040. The electricity demand in 2040 is expected at 2934 GWh and the gasoline and diesel demand at 964 m3 and 2181 m3 respectively. Accordingly the total hydrogen needed to supply electricity and the transport sector (e.g. to replace 1% gasoline and diesel demand in 2040) is calculated at 0.0117 Mt. Only a small fraction of 5% of the land area in Niger would be sufficient to generate the required electricity from solar PV to produce hydrogen.
The Role of New Energy in Carbon Neutral
Mar 2021
Publication
Carbon dioxide is an important medium of the global carbon cycle and has the dual properties of realizing the conversion of organic matter in the ecosystem and causing the greenhouse effect. The fixed or available carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is defined as “gray carbon” while the carbon dioxide that cannot be fixed or used and remains in the atmosphere is called “black carbon”. Carbon neutral is the consensus of human development but its implementation still faces many challenges in politics resources technology market and energy structure etc. It is proposed that carbon replacement carbon emission reduction carbon sequestration and carbon cycle are the four main approaches to achieve carbon neutral among which carbon replacement is the backbone. New energy has become the leading role of the third energy conversion and will dominate carbon neutral in the future. Nowadays solar energy wind energy hydropower nuclear energy and hydrogen energy are the main forces of new energy helping the power sector to achieve low carbon emissions. “Green hydrogen” is the reserve force of new energy helping further reduce carbon emissions in industrial and transportation fields. Artificial carbon conversion technology is a bridge connecting new energy and fossil energy effectively reducing the carbon emissions of fossil energy. It is predicted that the peak value of China’s carbon dioxide emissions will reach 110108 t in 2030. The study predicts that China's carbon emissions will drop to 22108 t 33108 t and 44108 t respectively in 2060 according to three scenarios of high medium and low levels. To realize carbon neutral in China seven implementation suggestions have been put forward to build a new “three small and one large” energy structure in China and promote the realization of China's energy independence strategy.
Biological CO2-Methanation: An Approach to Standardization
May 2019
Publication
Power-to-Methane as one part of Power-to-Gas has been recognized globally as one of the key elements for the transition towards a sustainable energy system. While plants that produce methane catalytically have been in operation for a long time biological methanation has just reached industrial pilot scale and near-term commercial application. The growing importance of the biological method is reflected by an increasing number of scientific articles describing novel approaches to improve this technology. However these studies are difficult to compare because they lack a coherent nomenclature. In this article we present a comprehensive set of parameters allowing the characterization and comparison of various biological methanation processes. To identify relevant parameters needed for a proper description of this technology we summarized existing literature and defined system boundaries for Power-to-Methane process steps. On this basis we derive system parameters providing information on the methanation system its performance the biology and cost aspects. As a result three different standards are provided as a blueprint matrix for use in academia and industry applicable to both biological and catalytic methanation. Hence this review attempts to set the standards for a comprehensive description of biological and chemical methanation processes.
Estimates of the Decarbonization Potential of Alternative Fuels for Shipping as a Function of Vessel Type, Cargo, and Voyage
Oct 2022
Publication
Fuel transition can decarbonize shipping and help meet IMO 2050 goals. In this paper HFO with CCS LNG with CCS bio-methanol biodiesel hydrogen ammonia and electricity were studied using empirical ship design models from a fleet-level perspective and at the Tank-ToWake level to assist operators technology developers and policy makers. The cargo attainment rate CAR (i.e. cargo that must be displaced due to the low-C propulsion system) the ES (i.e. TTW energy needed per ton*n.m.) the CS (economic cost per ton*n.m.) and the carbon intensity index CII (gCO2 per ton*n.m.) were calculated so that the potential of the various alternatives can be compared quantitatively as a function of different criteria. The sensitivity of CAR towards ship type fuel type cargo type and voyage distance were investigated. All ship types had similar CAR estimates which implies that considerations concerning fuel transition apply equally to all ships (cargo containership tankers). Cargo type was the most sensitive factor that made a ship either weight or volume critical indirectly impacting on the CAR of different fuels; for example a hydrogen ship is weight-critical and has 2.3% higher CAR than the reference HFO ship at 20000 nm. Voyage distance and fuel type could result in up to 48.51% and 11.75% of CAR reduction. In addition to CAR the ES CS and CII for a typical mission were calculated and it was found that HFO and LNG with CCS gave about 20% higher ES and CS than HFO and biodiesel had twice the cost while ammonia methanol and hydrogen had 3–4 times the CS of HFO and electricity about 20 times suggesting that decarbonisation of the world’s fleet will come at a large cost. As an example of including all factors in an effort to create a normalized scoring system an equal weight was allocated to each index (CAR ES CS and CII). Biodiesel achieved the highest score (80%) and was identified as the alternative with the highest potential for a deep-seagoing containership followed by ammonia hydrogen bio-methanol and CCS. Electricity has the lowest normalized score of 33%. A total of 100% CAR is achievable by all alternative fuels but with compromises in voyage distance or with refuelling. For example a battery containership carrying an equal amount of cargo as an HFO-fuelled containership can only complete 13% of the voyage distance or needs refuelling seven times to complete 10000 n.m. The results can guide decarbonization strategies at the fleet level and can help optimise emissions as a function of specific missions.
Techno-Economic Assessment of Green Hydrogen Production by an Off-Grid Photovoltaic Energy System
Jan 2023
Publication
Green hydrogen production is essential to meeting the conference of the parties’ (COP) decarbonization goals; however this method of producing hydrogen is not as cost-effective as hydrogen production from fossil fuels. This study analyses an off-grid photovoltaic energy system designed to feed a proton-exchange membrane water electrolyzer for hydrogen production to evaluate the optimal electrolyzer size. The system has been analyzed in Baghdad the capital of Iraq using experimental meteorological data. The 12 kWp photovoltaic array is positioned at the optimal annual tilt angle for the selected site. The temperature effect on photovoltaic modules is taken into consideration. Several electrolyzers with capacities in the range of 2–14 kW were investigated to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of the system. The simulation process was conducted using MATLAB and considering the project life span from 2021 to 2035. The results indicate that various potentially cost-competitive alternatives exist for systems with market combinations resembling renewable hydrogen wholesale. It has been found that the annual energy generated by the analyzed photovoltaic system is 18892 kWh at 4313 operating hours and the obtained hydrogen production cost ranges from USD 5.39/kg to USD 3.23/kg. The optimal electrolyzer capacity matches a 12 kWp PV system equal to 8 kW producing 37.5 kg/year/kWp of hydrogen for USD 3.23/kg.
Potentialities of Hydrogen Enriched Natural Gas for Residential Heating Decarbonization and Impact Analysis on Premixed Boilers
Sep 2019
Publication
Nowadays decarbonization of energy economy is a topical theme and several pathways are under discussion. Gaseous fuels will play a primary role during this transition and the production of renewable or low carbon-impact gaseous fuels is necessary to deal with this challenge. Decarbonization will be sustained by an increasing share of renewables which production intermittency can be critical for the energy system. Renewable hydrogen generation is a viable solution since this energy vector can be produced from electricity with a fast response and injected in the existing natural gas infrastructures granting storage capacity and easy transport. Parallelly to the renewable-based energy production fossil-based energy can be exploited with a low carbon impact using methane from reservoirs to produce hydrogen capturing CO2. The mentioned scenarios will lead to hydrogen enrichment of natural gas which impact on the infrastructures is being actively studied. The effect on end-user devices instead is poorly analysed but is fundamental to be assessed. This paper highlights the impact on the widely used premixed condensing boilers which will be fired with hydrogen enriched natural gas in the near future and the changes required to components.
Assessment of Operability and Inspection, Maintenance and Repair Requirements for Transmission Pipelines and Installations in Hydrogen Service
Apr 2021
Publication
This report has been prepared for Hytechnical work programme to support the technical strategy for repurposing existing transmission pipelines and installations for the transportation and distribution of hydrogen and natural gas / hydrogen blends. The aim of the Hytechnical work programme is to support the implementation of the IGEM supplements to the standards TD/1 TD/13 TD/3 and TD/4.<br/>The report covers a desk study into the requirements for the inspection maintenance operation and repair of above 7 bar natural gas pipelines and installations designed and operated in accordance with the standards existing IGEM/TD/1 and IGEM/TD/13 which are repurposed for hydrogen service.
Experimental Parameters of Ignited Congestion Experiments of Liquid Hydrogen in the PRESLHY Project
Sep 2021
Publication
Liquid hydrogen (LH2) has the potential to form part of the UK energy strategy in the future and therefore could see widespread use due to the relatively high energy density when compared to other renewable energy sources. To study the feasibility of this the European Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) funded project PRESLHY undertook pre-normative research for the safe use of cryogenic LH2 in non-industrial settings. Several key scenarios were identified as knowledge gaps and both theoretical and experimental studies were conducted to provide insight into these scenarios. This included experiments studying the effect of congestion on an ignited hydrogen plume that develops from a release of LH2; this paper describes the objectives experimental setup and a summary of the results from these activities. Characterisation of the LH2 release hydrogen concentration and temperatures measurements within the resulting gas cloud was undertaken along with pressure measurements both within the cloud and further afield. Various release conditions and congestion levels were studied. Results showed that at high levels of congestion increased overpressures occurred with the higher flow rates studied including one high order event. Data generated from these experiments is being taken forward to generate and validate theoretical models ultimately to contribute to the development of regulations codes and standards (RCS) for LH2."
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