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Low-Carbon Economic Dispatch of Integrated Energy Systems in Industrial Parks Considering Comprehensive Demand Response and Multi-Hydrogen Supply
Mar 2024
Publication
To address the increasing hydrogen demand and carbon emissions of industrial parks this paper proposes an integrated energy system dispatch strategy considering multi-hydrogen supply and comprehensive demand response. This model adopts power-to-gas technology to produce green hydrogen replacing a portion of gray hydrogen and incorporates a carbon capture system to effectively reduce the overall carbon emissions of the industrial park. Meanwhile incentive-based and price-based demand response strategies are implemented to optimize the load curve. A scheduling model is established targeting the minimization of procurement operation carbon emission and wind curtailment costs. The case study of a northern industrial park in China demonstrates that the joint supply of green and gray hydrogen reduces carbon emissions by 40.98% and costs by 17.93% compared to solely using gray hydrogen. The proposed approach successfully coordinates the economic and environmental performance of the integrated energy system. This study provides an effective scheduling strategy for industrial parks to accommodate high shares of renewables while meeting hydrogen needs and carbon reduction targets.
Life Cycle Cost Analysis of an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle that Employs Hydrogen Fuel Cell
Feb 2024
Publication
The use of autonomous vehicles for marine and submarine work has risen considerably in the last decade. Developing new monitoring systems navigation and communications technologies allows a wide range of operational possibilities. Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are being used in offshore missions and applications with some innovative purposes by using sustainable and green energy sources. This paper considers an AUV that uses a hydrogen fuel cell achieving zero emissions. This paper analyses the life cycle cost of the UAV and compares it with a UAV powered by conventional energy. The EN 60300-3-3 guidelines have been employed to develop the cost models. The output results show estimations for the net present value under different scenarios and financial strategies. The study has been completed with the discount rate sensibility analysis in terms of financial viability.
Ammonia as Hydrogen Carrier for Transportation; Investigation of the Ammonia Exhaust Gas Fuel Reforming
Jun 2013
Publication
In this paper we show for the first time the feasibility of ammonia exhaust gas reforming as a strategy for hydrogen production used in transportation. The application of the reforming process and the impact of the product on diesel combustion and emissions were evaluated. The research was started with an initial study of ammonia autothermal reforming (NH3 e ATR) that combined selective oxidation of ammonia (into nitrogen and water) and ammonia thermal decomposition over a ruthenium catalyst using air as the oxygen source. The air was later replaced by real diesel engine exhaust gas to provide the oxygen needed for the exothermic reactions to raise the temperature and promote the NH3 decomposition. The main parameters varied in the reforming experiments are O2/NH3 ratios NH3 concentration in feed gas and gas e hourly e space e velocity (GHSV). The O2/NH3 ratio and NH3 concentration were the key factors that dominated both the hydrogen production and the reforming process efficiencies: by applying an O2/NH3 ratio ranged from 0.04 to 0.175 2.5e3.2 l/min of gaseous H2 production was achieved using a fixed NH3 feed flow of 3 l/min. The reforming reactor products at different concentrations (H2 and unconverted NH3) were then added into a diesel engine intake. The addition of considerably small amount of carbon e free reformate i.e. represented by 5% of primary diesel replacement reduced quite effectively the engine carbon emissions including CO2 CO and total hydrocarbons.
OIES Podcast - Renewable Hydrogen Import Routes into the EU
Jun 2023
Publication
In this podcast David Ledesma talks to Martin Lambert and Abdurahman Alsulaiman about the potential hydrogen import market particularly focusing on the EU which currently holds the largest and earliest hydrogen target. The podcast explores the emerging hydrogen trade market and considers numerous possibilities for its open up providing better clarity on policy statements and balance them against project announcements.
Throughout the podcast Martin and Abdulrahman delve into various key points – they shed light on the primary areas of focus for projects set to be completed by or before 2030 as well as the distinction between announcements and tangible progress such as projects currently at the Final Investment Decision stage or under construction.
Additionally they explore the EU’s role as one of the few countries to have publicly announced its requirements for hydrogen imports and its ambitious hydrogen import target. The EU is currently establishing a benchmark for the future hydrogen market. However in order for the EU to succeed in establishing future hydrogen supply lines with future trade partners it will be crucial to engage in open dialogues covering a wide range of topics.
Join us in this podcast as we uncover the potential of the hydrogen import market with a specific focus on the EU and discuss the necessary steps for its success.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Throughout the podcast Martin and Abdulrahman delve into various key points – they shed light on the primary areas of focus for projects set to be completed by or before 2030 as well as the distinction between announcements and tangible progress such as projects currently at the Final Investment Decision stage or under construction.
Additionally they explore the EU’s role as one of the few countries to have publicly announced its requirements for hydrogen imports and its ambitious hydrogen import target. The EU is currently establishing a benchmark for the future hydrogen market. However in order for the EU to succeed in establishing future hydrogen supply lines with future trade partners it will be crucial to engage in open dialogues covering a wide range of topics.
Join us in this podcast as we uncover the potential of the hydrogen import market with a specific focus on the EU and discuss the necessary steps for its success.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Jet Zero Strategy: Delivering Net Zero Aviation by 2050
Jul 2022
Publication
The Jet Zero strategy sets out how we will achieve net zero aviation by 2050.<br/>It focuses on the rapid development of technologies in a way that maintains the benefits of air travel whilst maximising the opportunities that decarbonisation can bring to the UK.<br/>The Jet Zero strategy includes a 5-year delivery plan setting out the actions that will need to be taken in the coming years to support the delivery of net zero aviation by 2050. We will be monitoring progress and reviewing and updating our strategy every 5 years.<br/>The strategy is informed by over 1500 responses to the Jet Zero consultation and the Jet Zero further technical consultation to which we have issued a summary of responses and government response.<br/>The Jet Zero investment flightpath is part of a series of roadmaps to be published over the course of 2022 for each sector of the Prime Minister’s Ten point plan for a green industrial revolution.<br/>It showcases the UK’s leading role in the development and commercialisation of new low and zero emission aviation technologies. It also highlights investment opportunities across systems efficiencies sustainable aviation fuels and zero emission aircraft.
Potential for Natural Hydrogen in Quebec (Canada): A First Review
Mar 2024
Publication
The energy transition calls for natural hydrogen exploration with most occurrences discovered either inadvertently or more recently at the location of potentially diffusive circles observed from a change of vegetation cover at the surface. However some notable hydrogen occurrences are not directly associated with the presence of diffusive circles like the Bourakebougou field in Mali. Thus the objective of this work was to highlight geological areas that have some potential to find natural hydrogen in Quebec a Canadian province where no diffusive circles have yet been documented but which is rich in potential source rocks and where no exploration for natural hydrogen has been undertaken so far. A review of the different geological regions of Quebec was undertaken to highlight the relevant characteristics and geographical distribution of geological assemblages that may produce or have produced natural hydrogen in particular iron-rich rocks but also uranium-rich rocks supramature shales and zones where significant structural discontinuities are documented or suspected which may act as conduits for the migration of fluids of mantle origin. In addition to regional and local geological data an inventory of available geochemical data is also carried out to identify potential tracers or proxies to facilitate subsequent exploration efforts. A rating was then proposed based on the quality of the potential source rocks which also considers the presence of reservoir rocks and the proximity to end-users. This analysis allowed rating areas of interest for which fieldwork can be considered thus minimizing the exploratory risks and investments required to develop this resource. The size of the study area (over 1.5 million km2 ) the diversity of its geological environments (from metamorphic cratons to sedimentary basins) and their wide age range (from Archean to Paleozoic) make Quebec a promising territory for natural hydrogen exploration and to test the systematic rating method proposed here.
Green Hydrogen Value Chain: Modelling of a PV Power Plant Integrated with H2 Production for Industry Application
Mar 2024
Publication
Based on the Sustainable Development Goals outlined in the 2030 agenda of the United Nations affordable and clean energy is one of the most relevant goals to achieve the decarbonization targets and break down the global climate change effects. The use of renewable energy sources namely solar energy is gaining attention and market share due to reductions in investment costs. Nevertheless it is important to overcome the energy storage problems mostly in industrial applications. The integration of photovoltaic power plants with hydrogen production and its storage for further conversion to usable electricity are an interesting option from both the technical and economic points of view. The main objective of this study is to analyse the potential for green hydrogen production and storage through PV production based on technical data and operational considerations. We also present a conceptual model and the configuration of a PV power plant integrated with hydrogen production for industry supply. The proposed power plant configuration identifies different pathways to improve energy use: supply an industrial facility supply the hydrogen production and storage unit sell the energy surplus to the electrical grid and provide energy to a backup battery. One of the greatest challenges for the proposed model is the component sizing and water electrolysis process for hydrogen production due to the operational requirements and the technology costs.
The Interaction between Short- and Long-Term Energy Storage in an nZEB Office Building
Mar 2024
Publication
The establishment of near-autonomous micro-grids in commercial or public building complexes is gaining increasing popularity. Short-term storage capacity is provided by means of large battery installations or more often by the employees’ increasing use of electric vehicle batteries which are allowed to operate in bi-directional charging mode. In addition to the above short-term storage means a long-term storage medium is considered essential to the optimal operation of the building’s micro-grid. The most promising long-term energy storage carrier is hydrogen which is produced by standard electrolyzer units by exploiting the surplus electricity produced by photovoltaic installation due to the seasonal or weekly variation in a building’s electricity consumption. To this end a novel concept is studied in this paper. The details of the proposed concept are described in the context of a nearly Zero Energy Building (nZEB) and the associated micro-grid. The hydrogen produced is stored in a high-pressure tank to be used occasionally as fuel in an advanced technology hydrogen spark ignition engine which moves a synchronous generator. A size optimization study is carried out to determine the genset’s rating the electrolyzer units’ capacity and the tilt angle of the rooftop’s photovoltaic panels which minimize the building’s interaction with the external grid. The hydrogen-fueled genset engine is optimally sized to 40 kW (0.18 kW/kWp PV). The optimal tilt angle of the rooftop PV panels is 39◦ . The maximum capacity of the electrolyzer units is optimized to 72 kW (0.33 kWmax/kWp PV). The resulting system is tacitly assumed to integrate to an external hydrogen network to make up for the expected mismatches between hydrogen production and consumption. The significance of technology in addressing the current challenges in the field of energy storage and micro-grid optimization is discussed with an emphasis on its potential benefits. Moreover areas for further research are highlighted aiming to further advance sustainable energy solutions.
Evaluating Fuel Cell vs. Battery Electric Trucks: Economic Perspectives in Alignment with China’s Carbon Neutrality Target
Mar 2024
Publication
The electrification of heavy-duty trucks stands as a critical and challenging cornerstone in the low-carbon transition of the transportation sector. This paper employs the total cost of ownership (TCO) as the economic evaluation metric framed within the context of China’s ambitious goals for heavy truck electrification by 2035. A detailed TCO model is developed encompassing not only the vehicles but also their related energy replenishing infrastructures. This comprehensive approach enables a sophisticated examination of the economic feasibility for different deployment contexts of both fuel cell and battery electric heavy-duty trucks emphasizing renewable energy utilization. This study demonstrates that in the context where both fuel cell components and hydrogen energy are costly fuel cell trucks (FCTs) exhibit a significantly higher TCO compared to battery electric trucks (BETs). Specifically for a 16 ton truck with a 500 km range the TCO for the FCT is 0.034 USD/tkm representing a 122% increase over its BET counterpart. In the case of a 49 ton truck designed for a 1000 km range the TCO for the FCT is 0.024 USD/tkm marking a 36% premium compared to the BET model. The technological roadmap suggests a narrowing cost disparity between FCTs and BETs by 2035. For the aforementioned 16 ton truck model the projected TCO for the FCT is expected to be 0.016 USD/tkm which is 58% above the BET and for the 49 ton variant it is anticipated at 0.012 USD per ton-kilometer narrowing the difference to just 4.5% relative to BET. Further analysis within this study on the influences of renewable energy pricing and operational range on FCT and BET costs highlights a pivotal finding: for the 49 ton truck achieving TCO parity between FCTs and BETs is feasible when renewable energy electricity prices fall to 0.022 USD/kWh or when the operational range extends to 1890 km. This underscores the critical role of energy costs and efficiency in bridging the cost gap between FCTs and BETs.
On Green Hydrogen Generation Technologies: A Bibliometric Review
Mar 2024
Publication
Green hydrogen produced by water electrolysis with renewable energy plays a crucial role in the revolution towards energy sustainability and it is considered a key source of clean energy and efficient storage. Its ability to address the intermittency of renewable sources and its potential to decarbonize sectors that are difficult to electrify make it a strategic component in climate change mitigation. By using a method based on a bibliometric review of scientific publications this paper represents a significant contribution to the emerging field of research on green hydrogen and provides a detailed review of electrolyzer technologies identifying key areas for future research and technology development. The results reflect the immaturity of a technology which advances with different technical advancements waiting to find the optimal technical solution that allows for its massive implementation as a source of green hydrogen generation. According to the results found in this article alkaline (ALK) and proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers seem to be the ones that interest the scientific community the most. Similarly in terms of regional analysis Europe is clearly committed to green hydrogen in view of the analysis of its scientific results on materials and electrolyzer capacity forecasts for 2030.
Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Battery and Fuel Cell Electric Cars, Trucks, and Buses
Mar 2024
Publication
Addressing the pressing challenge of global warming reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation sector is a critical imperative. Battery and fuel cell electric vehicles have emerged as promising solutions for curbing emissions in this sector. In this study we conducted a comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) for typical passenger vehicles heavy-duty trucks and city buses using either proton-exchange membrane fuel cells or Li-ion batteries with different cell chemistries. To ensure accuracy we supplemented existing studies with data from the literature particularly for the recycling phase as database limitations were encountered. Our results highlight that fuel cell and battery systems exhibit large emissions in the production phase. Recycling can significantly offset some of these emissions but a comparison of the technologies examined revealed considerable differences. Overall battery electric vehicles consistently outperform fuel cell electric vehicles regarding absolute greenhouse gas emissions. Hence we recommend prioritizing battery electric over fuel cell vehicles. However deploying fuel cell electric vehicles could become attractive in a hydrogen economy scenario where other factors e. g. the conversion and storage of surplus renewable electricity via electrolysis become important.
Jet Zero Strategy: One Year On
Jul 2023
Publication
This report sets out progress against our strategic framework for decarbonising aviation as well as the latest aviation emissions data and updated Jet Zero analysis.<br/>Among the significant milestones achieved since the Jet Zero strategy launch are the:<br/>- agreement at the International Civil Aviation Organization for a long-term aspirational goal for aviation of net zero 2050 carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions for international aviation<br/>- publication of the 2040 zero emissions airport target call for evidence<br/>significant progress on sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) including:<br/>- publishing the second SAF mandate consultation<br/>- launching a second round of the Advanced Fuels Fund<br/>- publishing the Philip New report and the government response on how to develop a UK SAF industry<br/>- publication of the government response to the UK ETS consultation setting out a range of commitments that will enhance the effectiveness of the UK Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) for aviation<br/>- launch of the expressions of interest for 2 DfT- funded research projects into aviation’s non-CO2 impacts<br/>The report also acknowledges that big challenges remain and we need to continue to work across the aviation sector and with experts across the economy to ensure we continue to make progress on our path to decarbonise aviation.
Low Carbon Economic Dispatch of Integrated Energy Systems Considering Utilization of Hydrogen and Oxygen Energy
Mar 2024
Publication
Power-to-gas (P2G) facilities use surplus electricity to convert to natural gas in integrated energy systems (IES) increasing the capacity of wind power to be consumed. However the capacity limitation of P2G and the antipeaking characteristic of wind power make the wind abandonment problem still exist. Meanwhile the oxygen generated by P2G electrolysis is not fully utilized. Therefore this study proposes a low-carbon economic dispatch model considering the utilization of hydrogen and oxygen energy. First the two-stage reaction model of P2G is established and the energy utilization paths of hydrogen blending and oxygen-rich deep peaking are proposed. Specifically hydrogen energy is blended into the gas grid to supply gas-fired units and oxygen assists oxygenrich units into deep peaking. Subsequently the stochastic optimization is used to deal with the uncertainty of the system and the objective function and constraints of the IES are given to establish a low-carbon dispatch model under the energy utilization model. Finally the effectiveness of the proposed method is verified based on the modified IEEE 39-node electric network 20-node gas network and 6-node heat network models.
Revolutionising Energy Storage: The Latest Breakthrough in Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers
Mar 2024
Publication
Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC) can be used as a lossless form of hydrogen storage at ambient conditions. The storage cycle consists of the exothermic hydrogenation of a hydrogen-lean molecule at the start of the transport usually the hydrogen production site becoming a hydrogen-rich molecule. This loaded molecule can be transported long distances or be used as long-term storage due to its ability to not lose hydrogen over long periods of time. At the site or time of required hydrogen production the hydrogen can be released through an endothermic dehydrogenation reaction. LOHCs show similar properties to crude oils such as petroleum and diesel allowing easy handling and possibilities of integration with current infrastructure. Using this background this paper reviews a variety of aspects of the LOHC life cycle with a focus on currently studied materials. Important factors such as the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation requirements for each material are analysed to determine their ability to be used in current scenarios. Toluene and dibenzyltoluene are attractive options with promising storage attributes however their dehydrogenation enthalpies remain a problem. The economic feasibility of LOHCs being used as a delivery device were briefly analysed. LOHCs have been shown to be the cheapest option for long distance transport (>200 km) and are cheaper than most at shorter distances in terms of specifically transport costs. The major capital cost of an LOHC delivery chain remains the initial investment for the raw materials and the cost of equipment for performing hydrogenation and dehydrogenation. Finally some studies in developing the LOHC field were discussed such as microwave enhancing parts of the process and mixing LOHCs to acquire more advantageous properties.
Renewable Energy Potentials and Roadmap in Brazil, Austria, and Germany
Mar 2024
Publication
The emerging energy transition is particularly described as a move towards a cleaner lower-carbon system. In the context of the global shift towards sustainable energy sources this paper reviews the potential and roadmap for hydrogen energy as a crucial component of the clean energy landscape. The primary objective is to present a comprehensive literature overview illuminating key themes trends and research gaps in the scientific discourse concerning hydrogen production and energy policy. This review focuses particularly on specified geographic contexts with an emphasis on understanding the unique energy policies related to renewable energy in Brazil Austria and Germany. Given their distinct social systems and developmental stages this paper aims to delineate the nuanced approaches these countries adopt in their pursuit of renewable energy and the integration of hydrogen within their energy frameworks. Brazil exhibits vast renewable energy potential particularly in wind and solar energy sectors positioning itself for substantial growth in the coming years. Germany showcases a regulatory framework that promotes innovation and technological expansion reflecting its highly developed social system and commitment to transitioning away from fossil fuels. Austria demonstrates dedication to decarbonization particularly through the exploration of biomethane for residential heating and cooling.
Performance and Emission Optimisation of an Ammonia/ Hydrogen Fuelled Linear Joule Engine Generator
Mar 2024
Publication
This paper presents a Linear Joule Engine Generator (LJEG) powered by ammonia and hydrogen co-combustion to tackle decarbonisation in the electrification of transport propulsion systems. A dynamic model of the LJEG which integrates mechanics thermodynamics and electromagnetics sub-models as well as detailed combustion chemistry analysis for emissions is presented. The dynamic model is integrated and validated and the LJEG performance is optimised for improved performance and reduced emissions. At optimal conditions the engine could generate 1.96 kWe at a thermal efficiency of 34.3% and an electrical efficiency of 91%. It is found that the electromagnetic force of the linear alternator and heat addition from the external combustor and engine valve timing have the most significant influences on performance whereas the piston stroke has a lesser impact. The impacts of hydrogen ratio oxygen concentration inlet pressure and equivalence ratio of ammonia-air on nitric oxide (NO) formation and reduction are revealed using a detailed chemical kinetic analysis. Results indicated that rich combustion and elevated pressure are beneficial for NO reduction. The rate of production analysis indicates that the equivalence ratio significantly changes the relative contribution among the critical NO formation and reduction reaction pathways.
Circular Economy for the Energy System as a Leverage for Low-carbon Transition: Long-Ter, Analysis of the Case of the South-East Region of France
Mar 2024
Publication
The circular economy is a decisive strategy for reconciling economic development and the environment. In France the CE was introduced into the law in 2015 with the objective of closing the loop. The legislation also delegates energy policy towards the French regions by granting them the jurisdiction to directly plan the energy–climate issues on their territory and to develop local energy resources. Thereby the SUD PACA region has redefined its objectives and targeted carbon neutrality and the transition to a CE by 2050. To study this transition we developed a TIMESPACA optimization model. The results show that following a CE perspective to develop a local energy system could contribute to reducing CO2 emissions by 50% in final energy consumption and reaching almost free electricity production. To obtain greater reductions the development of the regional energy systems should follow a careful policy design favoring the transition to low energy-consuming behavior and the strategical allocation of resources across the different sectors. Biomethane should be allocated to the buildings and industrial sector while hydrogen should be deployed for buses and freight transport vehicles.
Carbon-neutral Cement: The Role of Green Hydrogen
Mar 2024
Publication
Business-as-usual (BAU) cement production is associated with a linear model that contributes significantly to global warming and is dependent on volatile energy markets. A novel circular model is proposed by adding three power-to-gas system components to current production systems: a calcium-looping (CaL) CO2 capture unit; water electrolysis for hydrogen and oxygen generation; and a methanation unit for synthetic natural gas (SNG) production. The paper presents the first analysis of the combined industrial-scale operation of these components in a closed loop where the SNG fuels the cement kiln and the CaL unit while the O2 produced feeds it. The circular hybrid and BAU models are compared in three feasibility scenarios. It is concluded that the circular model outperforms the other alternatives environmentally opening a potential pathway for the cement industry to achieve near net-zero CO2 emissions reduce energy dependence and improve economic efficiency.
Optimal Design of a Hydrogen-powered Fuel Cell System for Aircraft Applications
Mar 2024
Publication
Recently hydrogen and fuel cells have gained interest as an emerging technology to mitigate the effects of climate change caused by the aviation sector. The aim of this work is to evaluate the applicability of this technology to an existing regional aircraft in order to assess its electrification with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and achieving sustainability goals. The design of a proton-exchange membrane fuel cell system (PEMFC) with the inclusion of liquid hydrogen storage is carried out. Specifically a general mathematical model is developed which involves multiple scales ranging from individual cells to aircraft scale. First the fuel cell electrochemical model is developed and validated against published polarization curves. Then different sizing approaches are used to compute the overall weight of the hydrogen-based propulsion system in order to optimize the system and minimize its weight. Crucially this work underscores that the feasibility of hydrogenbased fuel cell systems relies not only on hydrogen storage but especially on the electrochemical cell performance which influences the size of the balance of plant and especially its thermal management section. In particular the strategic significance of working with fuel cells at partial loads is demonstrated. This entails achieving an optimal balance between the stacks oversizing and the weights of both hydrogen storage and balance of plant thereby minimizing the overall weight of the system. It is thus shown that an integrated approach is imperative to guide progress towards efficient and implementable hydrogen technology in regional aviation. Furthermore a high-performance PEMFC is analyzed resulting in an overall weight reduction up to nearly 10% compared to the baseline case study. In this way it is demonstrated as technological advancements in PEMFCs can offer further prospects for improving system efficiency.
A Hydrogen-fuelled Compressed Air Energy Storage System for Flexibility Reinforcement and Variable Renewable Energy Integration in Grids with High Generation Curtailment
Mar 2024
Publication
Globally the increasing share of renewables prominently driven by intermittent sources such as solar and wind power poses significant challenges to the reliability of current electrical infrastructures leading to the adoption of extreme measures such as generation curtailment to preserve grid security. Within this framework it is essential to develop energy storage systems that contribute to reinforce the flexibility and security of power grids while simultaneously reducing the share of generation curtailment. Therefore this study investigates the performance of an integrated photovoltaic-hydrogen fuelled-compressed air energy storage system whose configuration is specifically conceived to enable the connection of additional intermittent sources in already saturated grids. The yearly and seasonal performance of the integrated energy storage system specifically designed to supply flexibility services are evaluated for a scenario represented by a real grid with high-variable renewables penetration and frequent dispatchability issues. Results show that the integrated system with performanceoptimized components and a new energy management strategy minimizes photovoltaic energy curtailment otherwise around 50% to as low as 4% per year achieving system efficiencies of up to 62% and reinforces the grid by supplying inertial power for up to 20% of nighttime hours. In conclusion the integrated plant operating with zero emissions on-site hydrogen production and optimized for non-dispatchable photovoltaic energy utilization proves to be effective in integrating new variable renewable sources and reinforcing saturated grids particularly during spring and summer.
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