Policy & Socio-Economics

As part of reducing carbon emissions governments across the world are working on measures to transition sectors of the economy away from fossil fuels. The socio-technical regimes being constructed around the energy transition can encourage energy centralisation and constrain actor engagement without proper policy and planning. The energy transition is liable to have significant impacts across all of society but less attention has been given to the role of democratic participation and decision-making in the energy system during this time. Using the energy democracy framework developed by Kacper Szulecki we employ content analysis to investigate how Australia’s renewable hydrogen strategies at the Commonwealth and state levels engage with the broader objective of democratising energy systems. Based on our findings we recommend ways to support a renewable hydrogen regime in Australia in line with the principles of energy democracy such as community engagement built-in participation popular sovereignty community-level agency and civic ownership. This study provides a perspective on the energy transition that is often overlooked and a reminder to policymakers that the topology of an energy transition can take many forms.

We examine a different approach to complete the decarbonization of the Russian economy in a world where climate policy increasingly requires the radical reduction of emissions wherever possible. We propose an energy system that can supply solar and wind-generated electricity to fulfill demand and which accounts for intermittency problems. This is instead of the common approach of planning for expensive carbon capture and storage and a massive increase in energy efficiency and therefore a drastic reduction in energy use per unit of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Coupled with this massive increase in alternative energy we also propose using excess electricity to generate green hydrogen. Hydrogen technology can function as storage for future electricity needs or for potential fuel use. Importantly green hydrogen can potentially be used as a replacement export for Russia’s current fossil fuel exports. The analysis was carried out using the highly detailed modeling framework the High-Resolution Renewable Energy System for Russia (HIRES-RUS) representative energy system. The modeling showed that there are a number of feasible combinations of wind and solar power generation coupled with green hydrogen production to achieve 100% decarbonization of the Russian economy.

In recent years new-found interest in the hydrogen economy from both industry and academia has helped to shed light on its potential. Hydrogen can enable an energy revolution by providing much needed flexibility in renewable energy systems. As a clean energy carrier hydrogen offers a range of benefits for simultaneously decarbonizing the transport residential commercial and industrial sectors. Hydrogen is shown here to have synergies with other low-carbon alternatives and can enable a more cost-effective transition to de-carbonized and cleaner energy systems. This paper presents the opportunities for the use of hydrogen in key sectors of the economy and identifies the benefits and challenges within the hydrogen supply chain for power-to-gas power-to-power and gas-to-gas supply pathways. While industry players have already started the market introduction of hydrogen fuel cell systems including fuel cell electric vehicles and micro-combined heat and power devices the use of hydrogen at grid scale requires the challenges of clean hydrogen production bulk storage and distribution to be resolved. Ultimately greater government support in partnership with industry and academia is still needed to realize hydrogen's potential across all economic sectors.

Link to document download on Royal Society Website

Having a robust evidence base enables us to tackle real issues causing pain and suffering in the workplace. Critically it enables us to better understand developing issues and ways of working to ensure that we support innovation rather than stifle it through lack of knowledge. For example the work on the use of 3D printers in schools demonstrates HSE’s bility to engage and understand the risks to encourage safe innovation in a developing area (see p47).<br/>Other examples in this report show just a selection of the excellent work carried out by our staff often collaborating with others which contributes to improving how we regulate health and safety risks proportionately and effectively.<br/>One of HSEs key priorities is to prevent future cases of occupational lung disease by improving the management and control of hazardous substances. The case study on measuring Respirable Crystalline Silica exposure contributes to this and to recognise developing and future issues such as the work on diacetyl in the coffee industry (see p24 and p39). This type of scientific investigation gives our regulators good trusted information enabling critical decisions on the actions needed to protect workers.<br/>The case study on publishing new guidance on the use of Metalworking Fluids (MWF) demonstrates the important contribution of collaborative science to improving regulation. If used inappropriately exposure to MWF mist can cause serious long-term lung disease and it was recognised that users needed help to control this risk. HSE scientists and regulators worked with industry stakeholders to produce new free guidance which reflects changes in scientific understanding in a practical easy to use guide. As well as enabling users to better manage the risks and as a bonus likely save money it has assisted regulation by providing clear benchmarks for all to judge control against. An excellent example of science contributing to controlling serious health risks (see p22).<br/>These case studies are excellent examples of how science contributes to reducing risk. Hopefully they will inspire you to think about how risk in your workplace could be improved and where further work might be needed.

This White Paper has been commissioned by the UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell (H2FC) SUPERGEN Hub to examine the roles and potential benefits of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies within each sector of future energy systems and the transition infrastructure that is required to achieve these roles. The H2FC SUPERGEN Hub is an inclusive network encompassing the entire UK hydrogen and fuel cells research community with around 100 UK-based academics supported by key stakeholders from industry and government. It is funded by the UK EPSRC research council as part of the RCUK Energy Programme. This paper is the third of four that were published over the lifetime of the Hub with the others examining: (i) low-carbon heat; (ii) energy security; and (iv) economic impacts.

• Hydrogen and fuel cells are now being deployed commercially for mainstream applications.
• Hydrogen can play a major role alongside electricity in the low-carbon economy.
• Hydrogen technologies can support low-carbon electricity systems dominated by intermittent renewables and/or electric heating demand.
• The hydrogen economy is not necessary for hydrogen and fuel cells to flourish.

This report by the Committee on Climate Change (CCC) assesses the potential role of hydrogen in the UK’s low-carbon economy.

It finds that hydrogen:

• is a credible option to help decarbonise the UK energy system but its role depends on early Government commitment and improved support to develop the UK’s industrial capability
• can make an important contribution to long-term decarbonisation if combined with greater energy efficiency cheap low-carbon power generation electrified transport and new ‘hybrid’ heat pump systems which have been successfully trialled in the UK
• could replace natural gas in parts of the energy system where electrification is not feasible or is prohibitively expensive for example in providing heat on colder winter days industrial heat processes and back-up power generation
• is not a ‘silver bullet’ solution; the report explores some commonly-held misconceptions highlighting the need for careful planning

The report’s key recommendations are:

• Government must commit to developing a low-carbon heat strategy within the next three years
• Significant volumes of low-carbon hydrogen should be produced in a carbon capture and storage (CCS) ‘cluster’ by 2030 to help the industry grow
• Government must support the early demonstration of the everyday uses of hydrogen in order to establish the practicality of switching from natural gas to hydrogen
• There is low awareness amongst the general public of reasons to move away from natural gas heating to low-carbon alternatives
• A strategy should be developed for low-carbon heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) which encourages a move away from fossil fuels and biofuels to zero-emission solutions by 2050

In this report the Committee sets out how Northern Ireland can reduce its greenhouse gas emissions between now and 2030 in order to meet UK-wide climate change targets.

The report’s key findings are:

• Existing policies are not enough to deliver this reduction
• There are excellent opportunities to close this gap and go beyond 35%
• Meeting the cost-effective path to decarbonisation in Northern Ireland will require action across all sectors of the economy and a more joined-up approach

Overall Northern Ireland’s fair contribution to the UK’s fifth carbon budget requires emissions reductions of at least 35% against 1990 levels by 2030.

This is the Committee’s seventh report on Scotland’s progress towards meetings emissions targets as requested by Scottish Ministers under the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009.

Overall Scotland continues to outperform the rest of the UK in reducing its greenhouse gas emissions but successful strategies for energy and waste mask a lack of progress in other parts of the Scottish economy.

The report shows that Scotland’s total emissions fell by 10% in 2016 compared to 2015. The lion’s share of this latest drop in emissions came from electricity generation.

The key findings are:

• Overall Scotland met its annual emissions targets in 2016. 
• Scotland’s progress in reducing emissions from the power sector masks a lack of action in other areas particularly transport agriculture forestry and land use.
• Low-carbon heat transport agriculture and forestry sector policies need to improve in order to hit 2032 emissions targets.
• The Scottish Government’s Climate Change Plan – published in February 2018 – now has sensible expectations across each sector to reduce emissions.

This is the Committee’s fifth report on Scotland’s progress towards meeting emission reduction targets as requested by Scottish Ministers under the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009.<br/>The Scottish Act sets a long-term target to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) by at least 80% in 2050 relative to 1990 with an interim target to reduce emissions by 42% in 2020. Secondary legislation passed in October 2010 and October 2011 also set a series of annual emission reduction targets for 2010 to 2022 and 2023 to 2027 respectively. We advised the Scottish Government on annual targets for the period 2028 to 2032 in March 2016 and July 2016.<br/>The report reveals that Scotland’s annual emissions reduction target for 2014 was met with gross Scottish greenhouse gas emissions including international aviation and shipping falling by 8.6% in 2014. This compares to a 7.3% fall for the UK as a whole. Since 1990 gross Scottish emissions have fallen nearly 40% compared to nearly 33% at a UK level.

This report responds to a request from the Governments of the UK Wales and Scotland asking the Committee to reassess the UK’s long-term emissions targets. Our new emissions scenarios draw on ten new research projects three expert advisory groups and reviews of the work of the IPCC and others.<br/>The conclusions are supported by detailed analysis published in the Net Zero Technical Report that has been carried out for each sector of the economy plus consideration of F-gas emissions and greenhouse gas removals.

This spreadsheet contains data for two future UK scenarios: a "baseline" (i.e. no climate action after 2008 the start of the carbon budget system) and the "central" scenario underpinning the CCC's advice on the fifth carbon budget (the limit to domestic emissions during the period 2028-32).<br/>The central scenario is an assessment of the technologies and behaviours that would prepare for the 2050 target cost-effectively while meeting the other criteria in the Climate Change Act (2008) based on central views of technology costs fuel prices carbon prices and feasibility. It is not prescriptive nor is it the only scenario considered for meeting the carbon budgets. For further details on our scenarios and how they were generated see the CCC report Sectoral scenarios for the Fifth Carbon Budget. The scenario was constructed for the CCC's November 2015 report and has not been further updated for example to reflect outturn data for 2015 or changes to Government policy.

The cost of delivered H₂ using the liquid-distribution pathway will approach $4.3–8.0/kg in the USA and 26–52 RMB/kg in China by around 2030 assuming large-scale adoption. Historically hydrogen as an industrial gas and a chemical feedstock has enjoyed a long and successful history. However it has been slow to take off as an energy carrier for transportation despite its benefits in energy diversity security and environmental stewardship. A key reason for this lack of progress is that the cost is currently too high to displace petroleum-based fuels. This paper reviews the prospects for hydrogen as an energy carrier for transportation clarifies the current drivers for cost in the USA and China and shows the potential for a liquid-hydrogen supply chain to reduce the costs of delivered H₂. Technical and economic trade-offs between individual steps in the supply chain (viz. production transportation refuelling) are examined and used to show that liquid-H₂ (LH₂) distribution approaches offer a path to reducing the delivery cost of H₂ to the point at which it could be competitive with gasoline and diesel fuel.

This report sets out scenarios for the UK power sector in 2030 as an input to the Committee’s advice on the fifth carbon budget.<br/>These scenarios are not intended to set out a prescriptive path. Instead they provide a tool for the Committee to verify that its advice can be achieved with manageable impacts in order to meet the criteria set out in the Climate Change Act including competitiveness affordability and energy security.

Because of the increasing challenges raised by climate change power generation from renewable energy sources is steadily increasing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions especially CO2 . However this has escalated concerns about the instability of the power grid and surplus power generated because of the intermittent power output of renewable energy. To resolve these issues this study investigates two technical options that integrate a power-to-gas (PtG) process using surplus wind power and the gas turbine combined cycle (GTCC). In the first option hydrogen produced using a power-to-hydrogen (PtH) process is directly used as fuel for the GTCC. In the second hydrogen from the PtH process is converted into synthetic natural gas by capturing carbon dioxide from the GTCC exhaust which is used as fuel for the GTCC. An annual operational analysis of a 420-MWclass GTCC was conducted which shows that the CO2 emissions of the GTCC-PtH and GTCC-PtM plants could be reduced by 95.5% and 89.7% respectively in comparison to a conventional GTCC plant. An economic analysis was performed to evaluate the economic feasibility of the two plants using the projected cost data for the year 2030 which showed that the GTCC-PtH would be a more viable option.

A core theme of the UK Government's new Industrial Strategy is exploiting opportunities for domestic supply chain development. This extends to a special ‘Automotive Sector Deal’ that focuses on the shift to low emissions vehicles (LEVs). Here attention is on electric vehicle and battery production and innovation. In this paper we argue that a more straightforward gain in terms of framing policy around potential economic benefits may be made through supply chain activity to support refuelling of battery/hydrogen vehicles. We set this in the context of LEV refuelling supply chains potentially replicating the strength of domestic upstream linkages observed in the UK electricity and/or gas industries. We use input-output multiplier analysis to deconstruct and assess the structure of these supply chains relative to that of more import-intensive petrol and diesel supply. A crucial multiplier result is that for every £1million of spending on electricity (or gas) 8 full-time equivalent jobs are supported throughout the UK. This compares to less than 3 in the case of petrol/diesel supply. Moreover the importance of service industries becomes apparent with 67% of indirect and induced supply chain employment to support electricity generation being located in services industries. The comparable figure for GDP is 42%.

The Department of Energy (DOE) Hydrogen Program Plan (the Program Plan or Plan) outlines the strategic high-level focus areas of DOE’s Hydrogen Program (the Program). The term Hydrogen Program refers not to any single office within DOE but rather to the cohesive and coordinated effort of multiple offices that conduct research development and demonstration (RD&D) activities on hydrogen technologies. This terminology and the coordinated efforts on hydrogen among relevant DOE offices have been in place since 2004 and provide an inclusive and strategic view of how the Department coordinates activities on hydrogen across applications and sectors. This version of the Plan updates and expands upon previous versions including the Hydrogen Posture Plan and the DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Plan and provides a coordinated high-level summary of hydrogen related activities across DOE.



The 2006 Hydrogen Posture Plan fulfilled the requirement in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT 2005) that the Energy Secretary transmit to Congress a coordinated plan for DOE’s hydrogen and fuel cell activities. For historical context the original Posture Plan issued in 2004 outlined a coordinated plan for DOE and the U.S. Department of Transportation to meet the goals of the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI) and implement the 2002 National Hydrogen Energy Technology Roadmap. The HFI was launched in 2004 to accelerate research development and demonstration (RD&D) of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies for use in transportation electricity generation and portable power applications. The Roadmap provided a blueprint for the public and private efforts required to fulfill a long-term national vision for hydrogen energy as outlined in A National Vision of America’s Transition to a Hydrogen Economy—to 2030 and Beyond. Both the Roadmap and the Vision were developed out of meetings involving DOE industry academia non-profit organizations and other stakeholders. The Roadmap the Vision the Posture Plans the 2011 Program Plan and the results of key stakeholder workshops continue to form the underlying basis for this current edition of the Program Plan.



This edition of the Program Plan reflects the Department’s focus on conducting coordinated RD&D activities to enable the adoption of hydrogen technologies across multiple applications and sectors. It includes content from the various plans and documents developed by individual offices within DOE working on hydrogen-related activities including: the Office of Fossil Energy's Hydrogen Strategy: Enabling a Low Carbon Economy the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy’s Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office Multi-year RD&D Plan the Office of Nuclear Energy’s Integrated Energy Systems 2020 Roadmap and the Office of Science’s Basic Research Needs for the Hydrogen Economy. Many of these documents are also in the process of updates and revisions and will be posted online.



Through this overarching document the reader will gain information on the key RD&D needs to enable the largescale use of hydrogen and related technologies—such as fuel cells and turbines—in the economy and how the Department’s various offices are addressing those needs. The Program will continue to periodically revise the Plan along with all program office RD&D plans to reflect technological progress programmatic changes policy decisions and updates based on stakeholder input and reviews.

Adoption of hydrogen energy as an alternative to fossil fuels could be a major step towards decarbonising and fulfilling the needs of the energy sector. Hydrogen can be an ideal alternative for many fields compared with other alternatives. However there are many potential environmental challenges that are not limited to production and distribution systems but they also focus on how hydrogen is used through fuel cells and combustion pathways. The use of hydrogen has received little attention in research and policy which may explain the widely claimed belief that nothing but water is released as a by-product when hydrogen energy is used. We adopt systems thinking and system dynamics approaches to construct a conceptual model for hydrogen energy with a special focus on the pathways of hydrogen use to assess the potential unintended consequences and possible interventions; to highlight the possible growth of hydrogen energy by 2050. The results indicate that the combustion pathway may increase the risk of the adoption of hydrogen as a combustion fuel as it produces NOx which is a key air pollutant that causes environmental deterioration which may limit the application of a combustion pathway if no intervention is made. The results indicate that the potential range of global hydrogen demand is rising ranging from 73 to 158 Mt in 2030 73 to 300 Mt in 2040 and 73 to 568 Mt in 2050 depending on the scenario presented.

Australia’s National Hydrogen Strategy sets a vision for a clean innovative safe and competitive hydrogen industry that benefits all Australians. It aims to position our industry as a major player by 2030.<br/>The strategy outlines an adaptive approach that equips Australia to scale up quickly as the hydrogen market grows. It includes a set of nationally coordinated actions involving governments industry and the community.

Some 3% of global energy consumption today is used to produce hydrogen. Only 0.002% of this hydrogen about 1000 tonnes per annum(i) is used as an energy carrier. Yet as this timely position paper from DNV GL indicates hydrogen can become a major clean energy carrier in a world struggling to limit global warming.<br/>The company’s recently published 2018 Energy Transition Outlook(1) projects moderate uptake of hydrogen in this role towards 2050 then significant growth towards 2100. Building on that this position paper provides a more granular analysis of hydrogen as an energy carrier.

In this podcast David Ledesma talks to Martin Lambert Head of OIES Hydrogen Research about the key messages from the recent European Hydrogen Conference and how they fit with the ongoing research in OIES.   In particular they cover the heightened energy security concerns following the Russian invasion of Ukraine and hydrogen ambitions in the REPowerEU document published by the European Commission in early March 2002.   They then go on to talk about the growing realism about where hydrogen is more likely to play a role and some of the key challenges to be overcome. Addressing the challenges of creating business cases for use of hydrogen in specific sectors and for transporting it to customers the conversation also addresses the importance of hydrogen storage and the recognition that this area needs more focus both technically and commercially.   Finally they talk about the geopolitics of hydrogen and how energy security concerns may influence future development pathways.

The podcast can be found on their website

Hydrogen has been used as an industrial chemical for more than 100 years. Today hydrogen is used to manufacture ammonia and hence fertilizers as well as methanol and hydrogen peroxide both vital feedstocks for a wide variety of different chemical products. Furthermore in oil refineries hydrogen is used for the processing of intermediate products as well as to increase the hydrogen contents of the final products that are used propel the vehicles. However hydrogen has recently achieved new attention for its capabilities in reducing carbon emissions to the atmosphere. Producing hydrogen via low or totally carbon-free ways and using this “good” low-carbon hydrogen to replace hydrogen with a larger carbon footprint we can reduce carbon emissions. Furthermore using renewable electricity and captured carbon we can synthesise many such chemical products that are currently produced from fossil raw materials. This “Power-to-X” (P2X) is often seen as the eventual incarnation of the hydrogen economy. In addition the progress in technology both in hydrogen fuel cells and in polymer electrolyte electrolysers alike has increased their efficiencies.<br/>Furthermore production costs of renewable electricity by wind or solar power have lowered significantly. Thus cost of “good” hydrogen has also decreased markedly and production volumes are expected to increase rapidly. For these reasons many countries have raised interests in “good” hydrogen and have created roadmaps and strategies for their involvement in hydrogen. Hydrogen plays a key role also in combating climate change and reaching Finland's national goal of carbon neutrality by 2035. In recent years many clean hydrogen and P2X production methods have developed significantly and become commercially viable.<br/>This report was produced by a team of VTT experts on hydrogen and hydrogen-related technologies. The focus is in an outlook for low-carbon H2 production H2 utilization for green chemicals and fuels as well as storage transport and end-use especially during the next 10 years in Finland in connection to renewed EU regulations. This roadmap is expected to serve as the knowledge-base for further work such as shaping the hydrogen policy for Finland and determining the role of hydrogen in the national energy and climate policy.

This work dedicated to a mathematical description of energy transition scenarios consists of three main parts. The first part describes modern trends and problems of the energy sector. A large number of charts reflecting the latest updates in energy are provided. The COVID-2019 pandemic’s impacts on the energy sector are also included. The second part of the paper is dedicated to the analysis of energy consumption and the structure of the world fuel and energy balance. Furthermore a detailed description of energy-efficient technologies is given. Being important and low-carbon hydrogen is discussed including its advantages and disadvantages. The last part of the work describes the mathematical tool developed by the authors. The high availability of statistical data made it possible to identify parameters used in the algorithm with the least squares method and verify the tool. Performing several not complicated steps of the algorithm the tool allows calculating the deviation of the average global temperature of the surface atmosphere from preindustrial levels in the 21st century under different scenarios. Using the suggested mathematical description the optimal scenario that makes it possible to keep global warming at a level below 1.7 ◦C was found.

Low-carbon gases are indispensable to any energy system that is reliable clean affordable safe and is suited to spatial integration and zero-carbon hydrogen is a crucial link in that chain1. The most common element in the universe seems to have a highly bonding effect in the Netherlands – particularly as a result of the unique starting position of our country. This is made clear in the agreements of the National Climate Agreement which includes an ambitious target for hydrogen supported by a large and broad group of stakeholders. Industrial clusters and ports regard hydrogen as an indispensable part of their future and sustainability strategy. For the transport sector hydrogen (in combination with fuel cells) is crucial to achieving zero emissions transport. The agricultural sector has identified opportunities for the production of hydrogen and for its use. Cities regions and provinces are keen to get started on implementing hydrogen.<br/>The government embraces these targets and recognises the power of the framework for action demonstrated by so many parties. The focus on clean hydrogen in the Netherlands will lead to the creation of new jobs improvements to air quality and moreover is crucial to the energy transition.

Where does hydrogen fit into a global sustainable energy strategy for the 21st century as we face the enormous challenges of irreversible climate change and uncertain oil supply? This fundamental question is addressed by sketching a sustainable energy strategy that is based predominantly on renewable energy inputs and energy efficiency with hydrogen playing a crucial and substantial role. But this role is not an ex -distributed hydrogen production storage and distribution centres relying on local renewable energy sources and feedstocks would be created to avoid the need for an expensive long-distance hydrogen pipeline system. There would thus be complementary use of electricity and hydrogen as energy vectors. Importantly bulk hydrogen storage would provide the strategic energy reserve to guarantee national and global energy security in a world relying increasingly on renewable energy; and longer-term seasonal storage on electricity grids relying mainly on renewables. In the transport sector a 'horses for courses' approach is proposed in which hydrogen fuel cell vehicles would be used in road and rail vehicles requiring a range comparable to today's petrol and diesel vehicles and in coastal and international shipping while liquid hydrogen would probably have to be used in air transport. Plug-in battery electric vehicles would be reserved for shorter-trips. Energy-economic-environmental modelling is recommended as the next step to quantify the net benefits of the overall strategy outlined.

The hourly operation of Thermal Hydrogen electricity markets is modelled. The economic values for all applicable chemical commodities are quantified (syngas ammonia methanol and oxygen) and an hourly electricity model is constructed to mimic the dispatch of key technologies: bi-directional power plants dual-fuel heating systems and plug-in fuel-cell hybrid electric vehicles. The operation of key technologies determines hourly electricity prices and an optimization model adjusts the capacity to minimize electricity prices yet allow all generators to recover costs. We examine 12 cost scenarios for renewables nuclear and natural gas; the results demonstrate emissionsfree ‘energy-only’ electricity markets whose supply is largely dominated by renewables. The economic outcome is made possible in part by seizing the full supply-chain value from electrolysis (both hydrogen and oxygen) which allows an increased willingness to pay for (renewable) electricity. The wholesale electricity prices average $25–$45/ MWh or just slightly higher than the assumed levelized cost of renewable energy. This implies very competitive electricity prices particularly given the lack of need for ‘scarcity’ pricing capacity markets dedicated electricity storage or underutilized electric transmission and distribution capacity.