Publications

About 400 million tonnes of plastics are produced per annum worldwide. End-of-life of plastics disposal contaminates the waterways aquifers and limits the landfill areas. Options for recycling plastic wastes include feedstock recycling mechanical /material recycling industrial energy recovery municipal solid waste incineration. Incineration of plastics containing E-Wastes releases noxious odours harmful gases dioxins HBr polybrominated diphenylethers and other hydrocarbons. This study focusses on recycling options in particular feedstock recycling of plastics in high-temperature materials processing for a sustainable solution to the plastic wastes not suitable for recycling. Of the 7% CO₂ emissions attributed to the iron and steel industry worldwide ∼30% of the carbon footprint is reduced using the waste plastics compared to other carbon sources in addition to energy savings. Plastics have higher H₂ content than the coal. Hydrogen evolved from the plastics acts as the reductant alongside the carbon monoxide. Hydrogen reduction of iron ore in presence of plastics increases the reaction rates due to higher diffusion of H₂ compared to CO. Plastic replacement reduces the process temperature by at least 100–200 °C due to the reducing gases (hydrogen) which enhance the energy efficiency of the process. Similarly plastics greatly reduce the emissions in other high carbon footprint process such as magnesia production while contributing to energy.

Electrocatalytic water splitting is the key process for the formation of green fuels for energy transport and storage in a sustainable energy economy. Besides electricity it requires water an aspect that seldomly has been considered until recently. As freshwater is a limited resource (<1% of earth's water) lately plentiful reports were published on direct seawater (around 96.5% of earth's water) splitting without or with additives (buffers or bases). Alternatively the seawater can be split in two steps where it is first purified by reverse osmosis and then split in a conventional water electrolyser. This quantitative analysis discusses the challenges of the direct usage of non-purified seawater. Further herein we compare the energy requirements and costs of seawater purification with those of conventional water splitting. We find that direct seawater splitting has substantial drawbacks compared to conventional water splitting and bears almost no advantage. In short it is less promising than the two-step scenario as the capital and operating costs of water purification are insignificant compared to those of electrolysis of pure water.

Photovoltaic (PV) is promising to supply power for residential buildings. Battery is the most widely employed storage method to mitigate the intermittence of PV and to overcome the mismatch between production and load. Hydrogen storage is another promising method that it is suitable for long-term storage. This study focuses on the comparison of self-sufficiency ratio and cost performance between battery storage and hydrogen storage for a residential building in Sweden. The results show that battery storage is superior to the hydrogen storage in the studied case. Sensitivity study of the component cost within the hydrogen storage system is also carried out. Electrolyzer cost is the most sensitive factor for improving system performance. A hybrid battery and hydrogen storage system which can harness the advantages of both battery and hydrogen storages is proposed in the last place.

The Hy4Heat Safety Assessment has focused on assessing the safe use of hydrogen gas in certain types of domestic properties and buildings. The summary reports (the Precis and the Safety Assessment Conclusions Report) bring together all the findings of the work and should be looked to for context by all readers. The technical reports should be read in conjunction with the summary reports. While the summary reports are made as accessible as possible for general readers the technical reports may be most accessible for readers with a degree of technical subject matter understanding. All of the safety assessment reports have now been reviewed by the HSE.<br/><br/>This document is an overview of the Safety Assessment work undertaken as part of the Hy4Heat programme

Sustainability transportation is characterized by a positive externality on the environment health social security land use and social inclusion. The increasing interest in global warming has caused attention to be paid to the introduction of the hydrogen bus (H2B). When introducing new environmental technologies such as H2B it is often necessary to assess the environmental benefits related to this new technology. However such benefits are typically non-priced due to their public good nature. Therefore we have to address this problem using the contingent valuation (CV) method. This method has been developed within environmental economics as a means to economically assess environmental changes which are typically not traded in the market. So far several big cities have been analyzed to evaluate the perceived benefit related to H2B introduction but to the best of our knowledge no one has performed a CV analysis of a historical city where smog also damages historical buildings. This paper presents the results obtained using a multi-wave survey. We have investigated user preferences to elicit their willingness to pay for H2B introduction in Perugia taking into account all types of negative externalities due to the traffic pollution. The results confirm that residents in Perugia are willing to pay extra to support the introduction of H2B.

The transition to hydrogen as a fuel source presents several challenges. One of the major hurdles is the cost-effective production of hydrogen in small quantities (less than 1MMscf/month). In the early demonstration phase hydrogen can be provided by bulk distribution of liquid or compressed gas from central production plants; however the next phase to fostering the hydrogen economy will likely include onsite generation and extensive pipeline networks to help effect a pervasive infrastructure. Providing inexpensive hydrogen at a fleet operator’s garage or local fuelling station is a key enabling technology for direct hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs). The objective of this project was to develop a comprehensive turnkey stand-alone commercial hydrogen fuelling station for FCVs with state-of-the-art technology that is cost-competitive with current hydrocarbon fuels. Such a station would promote the advent of the hydrogen fuel economy for buses fleet vehicles and ultimately personal vehicles. Air Products partnering with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) The Pennsylvania State University Harvest Energy Technology and QuestAir developed a turnkey hydrogen fuelling station on the Penn State campus. Air Products aimed at designing a station that would have 65% overall station efficiency 82% PSA (pressure swing adsorption) efficiency and the capability of producing hydrogen at $3.00/kg (gge) H₂ at mass production rates. Air Products designed a fuelling station at Penn State from the ground up. This project was implemented in three phases. The first phase evaluated the various technologies available in hydrogen generation compression storage and gas dispensing. In the second phase Air Products designed the components chosen from the technologies examined. Finally phase three entailed a several-month period of data collection full-scale operation maintenance of the station and optimization of system reliability and performance. Based on field data analysis it was determined by a proprietary hydrogen-analysis model that hydrogen produced from the station at a rate of 1500 kg/day and when produced at 1000 stations per year would be able to deliver hydrogen at a price of $3.03/kg (gge) H₂. The station’s efficiency was measured to be 65.1% and the PSA was tested and ran at an efficiency of 82.1% thus meeting the project targets. From the study it was determined that more research was needed in the area of hydrogen fuelling. The overall cost of the hydrogen energy station when combined with the required plot size for scaled-up hydrogen demands demonstrated that a station using steam methane reforming technology as a means to produce on–site hydrogen would have limited utility in the marketplace. Alternative hydrogen supplies such as liquid or pipeline delivery to a refuelling station need to be included in the exploration of alternative energy site layouts. These avenues need to be explored before a definitive refuelling station configuration and commercialization pathway can be determined.

Green hydrogen produced by power‐to‐gas will play a major role in the defossilization of the energy system as it offers both carbon‐neutral chemical energy and the chance to provide flexibility. This paper provides an extensive analysis of hydrogen production in decentralized energy systems as well as possible operation modes (H2 generation or system flexibility). Modelling was realized for municipalities—the lowest administrative unit in Germany thus providing high spatial resolution—in the linear optimization framework OEMOF. The results allowed for a detailed regional analysis of the specific operating modes and were analyzed using full‐load hours share of used negative residual load installed capacity and levelized cost of hydrogen to derive the operation mode of power‐to‐gas to produce hydrogen. The results show that power‐to‐gas is mainly characterized by constant hydrogen production and rarely provides flexibility to the system. Main drivers of this dominant operation mode include future demand for hydrogen and the fact that high full‐load hours reduce hydrogen‐production costs. However changes in the regulatory market and technical framework could promote more flexibility and support possible use cases for the central technology to succeed in the energy transition.

In order to favor a transition to a renewable energy economy it is necessary to study the possible permeation of renewable energy sources not only in the electric grid or industrial scale but also in the small householding scale. One of the most interesting technologies available for this purpose is solar energy since it is a mature technology that can be easily installed in every rooftop. Thus a techno-economic assessment was carried out to evaluate the installation of a solar-based power-heat hybrid microgrid considering the use of hydrogen as an energy vector in a typical residential house in Spain. Lead-acid batteries plus the photovoltaic and solar thermal energy installation are complemented with a hydrogen system composed of an electrolyzer two metal hydride bottles and a fuel cell. A simulation tool has been generated using experimental models developed and validated with real equipment for each one of the electric microgrid component. Three operating modes were tested making use of this tool to better manage the energy consumed/produced and optimize the economic output of the facility. The results show that setting up a hydrogen-based microgrid in a residential house is unviable today mainly due to the high cost of hydrogen generation and consumption equipment. If only solar energy is considered the microgrid inversion (12.500 €) is recovered in ten years. On the other hand selling the electricity output has almost no repercussions considering current electrical rates in Spain. Finally while using an optimization algorithm to manage energy use battery life-spam and economic benefit slightly increase. However this profit may not be enough to justify the use of a more complex control system. The results of this research will help users renewable energy companies investigators and policymakers to better understand the different factors influencing the spread of renewable smart grids in households and propose solutions to address these.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of steels can reduce the structural integrity of gas pipelines. To simulate in-service degradation of pipeline steels in laboratory the method of accelerated degradation consisted in subjecting specimens to electrolytic hydrogenation to loading up the certain plastic deformation and heating of specimen at 250°C was recently developed. The purpose of this paper was to analyse mechanical and SCC behaviour of in-service and in-laboratory degraded gas pipeline steels and to reveal some fractographic features of SCC. Three pipeline steels of the different strength (17H1S which is equivalent of API X52 API X60 and API X70) were investigated. The characteristics of the as-received pipeline steels with different strength were compared with the properties of pipeline steels after in-service and in-laboratory degradation. An influence of the NS4 solution on SCC resistance of 17H1S and API X60 steels in the as-received state and after the accelerated degradation using slow strain rate tension method was analysed. The noticeable decrease of plasticity for 17H1S and API X60 steels after long-term operation was shown. Deep microdelaminations revealed in the central part of fracture surfaces for the operated steels can be considered as the signs of dissipated damaging in the metal caused by texture and hydrogen absorbed by metal. Comparison of the SCC tests results showed that the characteristics of both steels in the as-received state were insignificantly changed under the influence of the environment. At the same time the degraded steels were characterized by a high sensitivity to SCC. It was shown fractographically that it associated with cracking along interfaces of ferrite and pearlite grains with secondary deep intergranular cracks formation and also by delamination between ferrite and cementite inside pearlite grains. The similar fracture mechanism at SCC tests was revealed for near the outer surface of the specimens and in the central part of the fracture surfaces of in-laboratory degraded specimens. These results demonstrated the key role of hydrogen during SCC and in-bulk cracking as well.

Pressure is mounting on the natural gas and LNG community to reduce methane emissions and this is most urgent in EU countries following the adoption of much tougher greenhouse gas reduction targets of 2030 and the publication of the European Commission’s Methane Strategy. With rapidly declining indigenous EU production and therefore rising import dependence there are increasing calls for emissions from imported pipeline gas and LNG to be quantified and based on actual measurements as opposed to standard emission factors. The Methane Strategy promises to be a significant milestone in that process. Companies which are supplying (or intending to supply) natural gas to the EU – the largest global import market for pipeline gas and a very significant market for LNG – would be well advised to pay close attention to how the regulation of methane emissions is unfolding and to make an immediate and positive response. Failure to do so could accelerate the demise of natural gas in European energy balances faster than would otherwise have been the case and shorten the time available for transition to decarbonised gases – specifically hydrogen – using existing natural gas infrastructure.<br/>This EU initiative will (and arguably already has) attracted attention from non-EU governments and companies involved in global gas and LNG trade. We have already seen deliveries of `carbon neutral’ LNG cargos to Asia as well as a long-term LNG contract in which the greenhouse gas content of cargos will be measured reported and verified (MRV) according to an agreed methodology. Natural gas and LNG exports if based on these standards or those set out in the EU Methane Strategy may be able to command premium prices from buyers eager to demonstrate their own GHG reduction credentials to governments customers and civil society.

To ensure the UK’s net zero targets are met the transition from conventionally fueled transport to low emission alternatives is necessary. The impact from increased decarbonised electricity generation on ecosystem services (ES) and natural capital (NC) are not currently quantified with decarbonisation required to minimise impacts from climate change. This study aims to project the future electric and hydrogen energy demand between 2020 and 2050 for car bus and train to better understand the land/sea area that would be required to support energy generation. In this work predictions of the geospatial impact of renewable energy (onshore/offshore wind and solar) nuclear and fossil fuels on ES and NC were made considering generation mix number of generation installations and energy density. Results show that electric transport will require ~136599 GWh for all vehicle types analysed in 2050 much less than hydrogen transport at ~425532 GWh. We estimate that to power electric transport at least 1515 km2 will be required for solar 1672 km2 for wind and 5 km2 for nuclear. Hydrogen approximately doubles this requirement. Results provide an approximation of the future demands from the transport sector on land and sea area use indicating that a combined electric and hydrogen network will be needed to accommodate a range of socio-economic requirements. While robust assessments of ES and NC impacts are critical in future policies and planning significant reductions in energy demands through a modal shift to (low emission) public transport will be most effective in ensuring a sustainable transport future.

Currently hydrogen is mainly produced through steam reforming of natural gas. However this conventional process involves environmental and energy security concerns. This has led to the development of alternative technologies for (potentially) green hydrogen production. In this work the environmental and energy performance of biohydrogen produced in Europe via steam reforming of glycerol and bio-oil is evaluated from a life-cycle perspective and contrasted with that of conventional hydrogen from steam methane reforming. Glycerol as a by-product from the production of rapeseed biodiesel and bio-oil from the fast pyrolysis of poplar biomass are considered. The processing plants are simulated in Aspen Plus® to provide inventory data for the life cycle assessment. The environmental impact potentials evaluated include abiotic depletion global warming ozone layer depletion photochemical oxidant formation land competition acidification and eutrophication. Furthermore the cumulative (total and non-renewable) energy demand is calculated as well as the corresponding renewability scores and life-cycle energy balances and efficiencies of the biohydrogen products. In addition to quantitative evidence of the (expected) relevance of the feedstock and impact categories considered results show that poplar-derived bio-oil could be a suitable feedstock for steam reforming in contrast to first-generation bioglycerol.

An update on the proposed commercial frameworks for transport and storage power and industrial carbon capture business models.

This report is commissioned by the Henry Royce Institute for advanced materials as part of its role around convening and supporting the UK advanced materials community to help promote and develop new research activity. The overriding objective is to bring together the advanced materials community to discuss analyse and assimilate opportunities for emerging materials research for economic and societal benefit. Such research is ultimately linked to both national and global drivers namely Transition to Zero Carbon Sustainable Manufacture Digital & Communications Circular Economy as well as Health & Wellbeing.

This paper can be download from their website

This standard has been created for the specific purposes of the Hy4Heat programme. The standard was commissioned in 2018 and this version was considered and approved by the relevant IGEM committees in May of 2020. This version of the standard was developed using the latest publicly available information at that time and may include some conservative requirements which further research may deem not necessary. The supplement will be updated regularly following the publication of new research into the application of hydrogen.



This Reference Standard aims to identify and discuss the principles required for the safety and integrity of Hydrogen installation and utilisation in premises.



This document intends to:

• provide a point of reference for those requiring an understanding of the implications of using hydrogen as a distributed gas in properties
• detail the characteristics of Hydrogen
• detail the comparisons between hydrogen and Natural Gas (NG)
• discuss the safety implications of using hydrogen
• discuss the implications for materials when using hydrogen
• discuss the implications for the installation and use of using hydrogen in domestic & smaller commercial buildings.

The standard is available to download through the IGEM website here.

It is time that hydrogen moves from an afterthought to a central pillar of the energy system and its key role in delivering climate neutrality means it merits a dedicated framework. It becomes paramount to allow hydrogen to express its full potential as the other leg of the energy mobility and industry transitions. The proposed “Hydrogen Act” is not a single piece of legislation it is intended to be a vision for an umbrella framework aimed at harmonising and integrating all separate hydrogen-related actions and legislations. It focuses on infrastructure and market aspects describing three phases of development: the kick-start phase the ramp-up phase and the market-growth phase.

Hydrogen Fuelling Infrastructure Research and Station Technology (H2FIRST) is a project initiated by the DOE in 2015 and executed by Sandia National Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory to address R&D barriers to the deployment of hydrogen fuelling infrastructure. One key barrier to the deployment of fuelling stations is the land area they require (i.e. ""footprint""). Space is particularly a constraint in dense urban areas where hydrogen demand is high but space for fuelling stations is limited. This work presents current fire code requirements that inform station footprint then identifies and quantifies opportunities to reduce footprint without altering the safety profile of fuelling stations. Opportunities analyzed include potential new methods of hydrogen delivery as well as alternative placements of station technologies (i.e. rooftop/underground fuel storage). As interest in heavy-duty fuelling stations and other markets for hydrogen grows this study can inform techniques to reduce the footprint of heavy-duty stations as well.



This work characterizes generic designs for stations with a capacity of 600 kg/day hydrogen dispensed and 4 dispenser hoses. Three base case designs (delivered gas delivered liquid and on-site electrolysis production) have been modified in 5 different ways to study the impacts of recently released fire code changes colocation with gasoline refuelling alternate delivery assumptions underground storage of hydrogen and rooftop storage of hydrogen resulting in a total of 32 different station designs. The footprints of the base case stations range from 13000 to 21000 ft².



A significant focus of this study is the NFPA 2 requirements especially the prescribed setback distances for bulk gaseous or liquid hydrogen storage. While the prescribed distances are large in some cases these setback distances are found to have a nuanced impact on station lot size; considerations of the delivery truck path traffic flow parking and convenience store location are also important. Station designs that utilize underground and rooftop storage can reduce footprint but may not be practical or economical. For example burying hydrogen storage tanks underground can reduce footprint but the cost savings they enable depend on the cost of burial and the cost land. Siting and economic analysis of station lot sizes illustrate the benefit of smaller station footprints in the flexibility and cost savings they can provide. This study can be used as a reference that provides examples of the key design differences that fuelling stations can incorporate the approximate sizes of generic station lots and considerations that might be unique to particular designs.

European countries approach the market ramp-up of hydrogen very differently. In some cases the economic and political starting points differ significantly. While the probability is high that some countries such as Germany or Italy will import hydrogen in the long term other countries such as United Kingdom France or Spain could become hydrogen exporters. The reasons for this are the higher potential for renewable energies but also a technology-neutral approach on the supply side.

Hydrogen produced from renewables works as an energy carrier and as energy storage medium and thus hydrogen can help to overcome the intermittency of typical renewable energy sources. However there is no comprehensive environmental performance study of hydrogen production and consumption. In this study detailed cradle to grave life cycle analyses are performed in an isolated territory. The hydrogen is produced on-site by Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) water electrolysis based on electricity from wind turbines that would otherwise have been curtailed and subsequently transported with gas cylinder by road and ferry. The hydrogen is used to provide electricity and heat through fuel cell stacks as well as hydrogen fuel for fuel cell vehicles. In order to evaluate the environmental impacts related to the hydrogen production and utilisation this work conducts an investigation of the entire life cycle of the described hydrogen production transportation and utilisation. All the processes related to the equipment manufacture operation maintenance and disposal are considered in this study.

Climate change and environmental degradation are an existential threat to Europe and the world. To overcome these challenges Europe needs a new growth strategy that will transform the Union into a modern resource-efficient and competitive economy where

• there are no net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050
• economic growth is decoupled from resource use
• no person and no place is left behind

The European Green Deal is our plan to make the EU's economy sustainable. We can do this by turning climate and environmental challenges into opportunities and making the transition just and inclusive for all



The European Green Deal provides an action plan to

• boost the efficient use of resources by moving to a clean circular economy
• restore biodiversity and cut pollution

The plan outlines investments needed and financing tools available. It explains how to ensure a just and inclusive transition.



The EU aims to be climate neutral in 2050. We proposed a European Climate Law to turn this political commitment into a legal obligation.



Reaching this target will require action by all sectors of our economy including

• investing in environmentally-friendly technologies
• supporting industry to innovate
• rolling out cleaner cheaper and healthier forms of private and public transport
• decarbonising the energy sector
• ensuring buildings are more energy efficient
• working with international partners to improve global environmental standards

The EU will also provide financial support and technical assistance to help those that are most affected by the move towards the green economy. This is called the Just Transition Mechanism. It will help mobilise at least €100 billion over the period 2021-2027 in the most affected regions.

Effects of microstructural changes induced by prestraining on hydrogen transport and hydrogen embrittlement (HE) of austenitic stainless steels were studied by hydrogen precharging and tensile testing. Prestrains higher than 20% at 20 °C significantly enhance the HE of 304L steel as they induce severe α′ martensite transformation accelerating hydrogen transport and hydrogen entry during subsequent hydrogen exposure. In contrast 304L steel prestrained at 50 and 80 °C and 316L steel prestrained at 20 °C exhibit less HE due to less α′ after prestraining. The increase of dislocations after prestraining has a negligible influence on apparent hydrogen diffusivity compared with pre-existing α′. The deformation twins in heavily prestrained 304L steel can modify HE mechanism by assisting intergranular (IG) fracture. Regardless of temperature and prestrain level HE and apparent diffusivity ( Dapp ) increase monotonously with α′ volume fraction ( f_α′ ). D_app can be described as log D_app=log(D_α′s_α′/s_γ)+log[f_α′/(1−f_α′)] for 10%<f_α′<90% with Dα′ is diffusivity in α′ s_α′ and s_γ are solubility in α′ and austenite respectively. The two equations can also be applied to these more typical duplex materials containing both BCC and FCC phases.

The paper presents a sustainable electric powertrain for a transit city bus featuring an electrochemical battery-free power unit consisting of a hydrogen fuel cell stack and a kinetic energy storage system based on high-speed flywheels. A rare-earth free high-efficiency motor technology is adopted to pursue a more sustainable vehicle architecture by limiting the use of critical raw materials. A suitable dynamic energetic model of the full vehicle powertrain has been developed to investigate the feasibility of the traction system and the related energy management control strategy. The model includes losses characterisation as a function of the load of the main components of the powertrain by using experimental tests and literature data. The performance of the proposed solution is evaluated by simulating a vehicle mission on an urban path in real traffic conditions. Considerations about the effectiveness of the traction system are discussed.

Niobium microalloying is the backbone of modern low-carbon high strength low alloy (HSLA) steel metallurgy providing a favorable combination of strength and toughness by pronounced microstructural refinement. Molybdenum alloying is established in medium-carbon quenching and tempering of steel by delivering high hardenability and good tempering resistance. Recent developments of ultra-high strength steel grades such as fully martensitic steel can be optimized by using beneficial metallurgical effects of niobium and molybdenum. The paper details the metallurgical principles of both elements in such steel and the achievable improvement of properties. Particularly the underlying mechanisms of improving toughness and reducing the sensitivity towards hydrogen embrittlement by a suitable combination of molybdenum and niobium alloying will be discussed.

Metastable austenitic stainless steels (ASSs) have excellent ductility but low strength so that their usage as load-bearing components is significantly limited. Rolling is an effective method of increasing strength whereas the effect of rolling temperature on microstructural evolution the hydrogen embrittlement (HE) sensitivity and fracture mechanisms is still unclear. In present study the effect of cold/warm rolling on detailed microstructural characteristics of 304 ASS was quantitatively investigated and the corresponding HE sensitivity was evaluated via slow strain rate test. The results suggest that cold-rolling led to high strength but poor plasticity and deteriorated HE sensitivity while warm-rolled samples provided combination of high strength and ductility and also superior HE resistance. Compared with 18% α′-martensite in cold -rolled steel warm-rolled specimens consisted of complete austenite less twins and lower dislocation density，moreover the favorable {112} ND and {110} ND textures replaced the harmful {001} ND texture. Based on in-situ EBSD observation during SSRT the HE sensitivity was governed by the combined effect of pre-deformation microstructures and the dynamic microstructural evolution. Advanced method of time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry was used to observe the distribution of hydrogen and the hydrogen content of specimens was determined by the gas chromatograph thermal desorption analysis method. An exceedingly small amount of hydrogen entered the warm-rolled samples while a large amount of hydrogen was trapped at grain boundaries of cold-rolled sample leading to complete intergranular fracture. Therefore warm rolling is an effective pathway for obtaining high combination of strength and ductility together with excellent HE sensitivity.

The report documents current knowledge of the social issues surrounding hydrogen projects. It reviews leading practice stakeholder engagement and communication strategies and findings from focus groups and research activities across Australia.

The full report can be found at this link.