United Kingdom

If the general public is to use hydrogen as a vehicle fuel customers must be able to handle hydrogen with the same degree of confidence and with comparable risk as conventional liquid and gaseous fuels. The hazards associated with jet releases from leaks in a vehicle-refuelling environment must be considered if hydrogen is stored and used as a high-pressure gas since a jet release in a confined or congested area could result in an explosion. As there was insufficient knowledge of the explosion hazards a study was initiated to gain a better understanding of the potential explosion hazard consequences associated with high-pressure leaks from refuelling systems. This paper describes two experiments with a dummy vehicle and dispenser units to represent refuelling station congestion. The first represents a ‘worst-case’ scenario where the vehicle and dispensers are enveloped by a 5.4 m x 6.0 m x 2.5 m high pre-mixed hydrogen-air cloud. The second is an actual high-pressure leak from storage at 40 MPa (400 bar) representing an uncontrolled full-bore failure of a vehicle refuelling hose. In both cases an electric spark ignited the flammable cloud. Measurements were made of the explosion overpressure generated its evolution with time and its decay with distance. The results reported provide a direct demonstration of the explosion hazard from an uncontrolled leak; they will also be valuable for validating explosion models that will be needed to assess configurations and conditions beyond those studied experimentally.

This work programme was focused on identifying a suitable odorant for use in a 100% hydrogen gas grid (domestic use such as boilers and cookers). The research involved a review of existing odorants (used primarily for natural gas) and the selection of five suitable odorants based on available literature. One odorant was selected based on possible suitability with a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) based fuel cell vehicle which could in future be a possible end-user of grid hydrogen. NPL prepared Primary Reference Materials containing the five odorants in hydrogen at the relevant amount fraction levels (as would be found in the grid) including ones provided by Robinson Brothers (the supplier of odorants for natural gas in the UK). These mixtures were used by NPL to perform tests to understand the effects of the mixtures on pipeline (metal and plastic) appliances (a hydrogen boiler provided by Worcester Bosch) and PEM fuel cells. HSE investigated the health and environmental impact of these odorants in hydrogen. Olfactory testing was performed by Air Spectrum to characterise the ‘smell’ of each odorant. Finally an economic analysis was performed by E4tech. The results confirm that Odorant NB would be a suitable odorant for use in a 100% hydrogen gas grid for combustion applications but further research would be required if the intention is to supply grid hydrogen to stationery fuel cells or fuel cell vehicles. In this case further testing would need to be performed to measure the extent of fuel cell degradation caused by the non-sulphur odorant obtained as part of this work programme and also other UK projects such as the Hydrogen Grid to Vehicle (HG2V) project[1] would provide important information about whether a purification step would be required regardless of the odorant before the hydrogen purity would be suitable for a PEM fuel cell vehicle. If purification was required it would be fine to use Odorant NB as this would be removed during the purification step.

This report and any attachment is freely available on the Hy4Heat website here. The report can also be downloaded directly by clicking on the pdf icon above 

The onset and further development of the hydrogen economy are known to be constrained by safety barriers as well as by the level of public acceptance of new applications. Educational and training programmes in hydrogen safety which are currently absent in Europe are considered to be a key instrument in lifting these limitations and to ensure the safe introduction of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Therefore the European Network of Excellence ‘Safety of Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier’ (NoE HySafe) embarked on the establishment of the e-Academy of Hydrogen Safety. This work is led by the University of Ulster and carried out in cooperation with international partners from five other universities (Universidad Politecnica de Madrid Spain; University of Pisa Italy; Warsaw University of Technology Poland; Instituto Superior Technico Portugal; University of Calgary Canada) two research institutions (Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe and Forschungszentrum Juelich Germany) and one enterprise (GexCon Norway). The development of an International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering aided by world-class experts from within and outside NoE HySafe is of central importance to the establishment of the e-Academy of Hydrogen Safety. Despite its key role in identifying the knowledge framework of the subject matter and its role in aiding educators with the development of teaching programmes on hydrogen safety no such curriculum appears to have been developed previously. The current structure of the International Curriculum on Hydrogen Safety Engineering and the motivation behind it are described in this paper. Future steps in the development of a system of hydrogen safety education and training in Europe are briefly described.

This paper presents a compilation and discussion of the results supplied by HySafe partners participating in the Standard Benchmark Exercise Problem (SBEP) V1 which is based on an experiment on hydrogen release mixing and distribution inside a vessel. Each partner has his own point of view of the problem and uses a different approach to the solution. The main characteristics of the models employed for the calculations are compared. The comparison between results together with the experimental data when available is made. Relative deviations of each model from the experimental values are also included. Explanations and interpretations of the results are presented together with some useful conclusions for future work.

In order for fuel cell vehicles to develop a widespread role in society it is essential that hydrogen refuelling stations become established. For this to happen there is a need to demonstrate the safety of the refuelling stations. The work described in this paper was carried out to provide experimental information on hydrogen outflow dispersion and explosion behaviour. In the first phase homogeneous hydrogen-air-mixtures of a known concentration were introduced into an explosion chamber and the resulting flame speed and overpressures were measured. Hydrogen concentration was the dominant factor influencing the flame speed and overpressure. Secondly high-pressure hydrogen releases were initiated in a storage room to study the accumulation of hydrogen. For a steady release with a constant driving pressure the hydrogen concentration varied as the inlet airflow changed depending on the ventilation area of the room the external wind conditions and also the buoyancy induced flows generated by the accumulating hydrogen. Having obtained this basic data the realistic dispersion and explosion experiments were executed at full-scale in the hydrogen station model. High-pressure hydrogen was released from 0.8-8.0mm nozzle at the dispenser position and inside the storage room in the full-scale model of the refuelling station. Also the hydrogen releases were ignited to study the overpressures that can be generated by such releases. The results showed that overpressures that were generated following releases at the dispenser location had a clear correlation with the time of ignition distance from ignition point.

HyDeploy is a pioneering hydrogen energy project designed to help reduce UK CO2 emissions and reach the Government’s net zero target for 2050.

As the first ever live demonstration of hydrogen in homes HyDeploy aims to prove that blending up to 20% volume of hydrogen with natural gas is a safe and greener alternative to the gas we use now.  It is  providing evidence on how customers don’t have to change their cooking or heating appliances to take the blend which means less disruption and cost for them.

The large eddy simulation (LES) model developed at the University of Ulster has been applied to simulate releases of 5.11 m3 liquefied hydrogen (LH2) in open atmosphere and gaseous hydrogen (GH2) in 20-m3 closed vessel. The simulations of a spill of liquefied hydrogen confirmed the advantage of LES application to reproduce experimentally observed eddy structure of hydrogen-air cloud. The inclination angle of simulated cloud is close to experimentally reported 300. The processes of two phase hydrogen release and heat transfer were simplified by inflow of gaseous hydrogen with temperature 20 K equal to boiling point. It is shown that difference in inflow conditions geometry and grid resolution affects simulation results. It is suggested that phenomenon of air condensationevaporation in the cloud in temperature range 20-90 K should be accounted for in future. The simulations reproduced well experimental data on GH2 release and transport in 20-m3 vessel during 250 min including a phenomenon of hydrogen concentration growth at the bottom of the vessel. Higher experimental hydrogen concentration at the bottom is assumed to be due to non-uniformity of temperature of vessel walls generating additional convection. The comparison of convective and diffusion terms in Navie-Stokes equations has revealed that a value of convective term is more than order of magnitude prevail over a value of turbulent diffusion term. It is assumed that the hydrogen transport to the bottom of the vessel is driven by the remaining chaotic flow velocities superimposed on stratified hydrogen concentration field. Further experiments and simulations with higher accuracy have to be performed to confirm this phenomenon. It has been demonstrated that hydrogen-air mixture became stratified in about 1 min after release was completed. However one-dimensional models are seen not capable to reproduce slow transport of hydrogen during long period of time characteristic for scenarios such as leakage in a garage.

This publication by the Department for Business Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) brings together heat networks investment opportunities in England and Wales. The opportunities present a wide range of projects supported through the development stages by the Heat Networks Delivery Unit (HNDU) and projects seeking capital support from the Heat Networks Investment Project (HNIP).

The publication includes a list of one-page summaries for each of the heat network projects supported by BEIS which set out details of HNDU and HNIP projects where projects have provided enough detail in time for publication.

For HNIP this represents projects which have submitted at least a pre-application to the Delivery Partner Triple Point Heat Networks Investment Management since the scheme opened in February 2019. As a number of the projects are at different stages of development some of the costs aren’t currently available or will be subject to project consent and change as they progress through the project lifecycle.

Related Document: Heat Network Detailed Project Development Resource: Guidance on Strategic and Commercial Case

The paper presented experimental studies of the liftoff and blowout stability of pure hydrogen hydrogen/propane and hydrogen/methane jet flam es using a 2 mm burner. Carbon dioxide and Argon gas were also used in the study for the comparison with hydrocarbon fuel. Comparisons of the stability of H 2/C3H8 H 2/CH4 H 2/Ar and H 2/CO2 flames showed that H 2/C3H8 produced the highest liftoff height and H 2/CH4 required highest liftoff and blowoff velocities. The non-dimensional analysis of liftoff height approach was used to correlate liftoff data of H 2 H2-C3H8 H 2-CO2 C 3H8 and H2-Ar jet flames tested in the 2 mm burner. The suitability of extending the empirical correlations based on hydrocarbon flames to both hydrogen and hydrogen/ hydrocarbon flames was examined.

The next decade will see fundamental changes in how people heat their homes. The global energy system is changing in response to the need to transition away from fossil-based generation towards more environmentally sustainable alternatives.

Hydrogen offers one such alternative but currently there is limited understanding of public perceptions of hydrogen the information that people need in order to make an informed choice about using hydrogen in their homes and how misunderstandings could present barriers to the uptake of hydrogen technology. This is crucial to ensure the success of future policy and investment. The H21 concept is to convert the UK gas distribution network to 100% hydrogen over time thereby decarbonising heat and supporting decarbonisation of electric large industrials and transport. This would be achieved using the existing UK gas grid network and technology available across the world today whilst maintaining the benefits of gas and the gas networks in the energy mix for the long-term future. Additionally this would maintain choice of energy for customers i.e. they would be able to use both gas and electricity. The H21 project is being delivered by the UK gas distribution networks Northern Gas Networks Cadent Wales & West Utilities and SGN. As part of the H21 project Leeds Beckett University has been working with Northern Gas Networks to gain insight into public perceptions of hydrogen as a domestic fuel. Using innovative social science methods the research team has explored for the first time public perceptions of moving the UK domestic fuel supply to 100% hydrogen. We identify what people think and feel about a potential conversion the concerns and questions that they have and how to address them clearly. The findings presented in this report will ensure that issues around the current perception of hydrogen are identified and addressed prior to any large-scale technology rollout.

The first stage of the project comprised a series of discovery interviews which explored how to talk to people about hydrogen and the H21 project. We interviewed 12 participants selected to ensure we included people with a range of experiences and domestic settings for example people who live in urban and rural areas those who live alone those who live with children or a partner those who live in their own home and those who rent. Most participants had given very little thought about where their gas and electric comes from and other than switching supplier to get a better tariff had very little interest in it. They had not previously considered their domestic heating as a source of carbon emissions and were surprised that there may be a need in the future to change their gas supply. From the discovery interviews we identified several key areas to explore in the next stage of the work:

• Beliefs about the environment
• Beliefs about inconvenience and cost
• Beliefs about safety
• Beliefs about the economic impact

This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.

This report forms part of the Committee’s advice on the level of the fifth carbon budget.<br/>The report describes the scenarios used by the Committee to inform its judgements over the cost-effective path to meeting the UK’s greenhouse reduction targets in the period 2028-2032.

The largest known experiment on hydrogen-air deflagration in the open atmosphere has been analysed by means of the large eddy simulation (LES). The combustion model is based on the progress variable equation to simulate a premixed flame front propagation and the gradient method to decouple the physical combustion rate from numerical peculiarities. The hydrodynamic instability has been partially resolved by LES and unresolved effects have been modelled by Yakhot's turbulent premixed combustion model. The main contributor to high flame propagation velocity is the additional turbulence generated by the flame front itself. It has been modelled based on the maximum flame wrinkling factor predicted by Karlovitz et al. theory and the transitional distance reported by Gostintsev with colleagues. Simulations are in a good agreement with experimental data on flame propagation dynamics flame shape and outgoing pressure wave peaks and structure. The model is built from the first principles and no adjustable parameters were applied to get agreement with the experiment.

The higher cost of green hydrogen in comparison to its competitors is the most important barrier to its increased use. Although the cost of renewable electricity is considered to be the key obstacle challenges associated with electrolysers are another major issue that have important implications for the cost reduction of green hydrogen. This paper analyses the electrolysis process from technological economic and policy perspectives. It first provides a comparative analysis of the main existing electrolyser technologies and identifies key trade-offs in terms of cost scarcity of materials used technology readiness and the ability to operate in a flexible mode (which enables them to be coupled with variable renewables generation). The paper then identifies the main cost drivers for each of the most promising technologies and analyses the opportunities for cost reduction. It also draws upon the experience of solar and wind power generation technologies with respect to gradual cost reduction and evaluates development paths that each of the main electrolyser technology types could take in the future. Finally the paper elaborates on the policy mechanisms that could additionally foster cost reduction and the overall business development of electrolyser technologies.

The research paper can be found on their website

If the hydrogen economy is to progress more hydrogen fuelling stations are required. In the short term in the absence of a hydrogen distribution network these fuelling stations will have to be supplied by liquid hydrogen road tanker. Such a development will increase the number of tanker offloading operations significantly and these may need to be performed in close proximity to the general public.<br/>The aim of this work is to identify and address hazards relating to the storage and transport of bulk liquid hydrogen (LH2) that are associated with hydrogen refuelling stations located in urban environments. Experimental results will inform the wider hydrogen community and contribute to the development of more robust modelling tools. The results will also help to update and develop guidance for codes and standards.<br/>The first phase of the project was to develop an experimental and modelling strategy for the issues associated with liquid hydrogen spills; this was documented in HSL report XS/10/06[1].<br/>The second phase of the project was to produce a position paper on the hazards of liquid hydrogen which was published in 2009 XS/09/72[2]. This was also published as a HSE research report RR769 in 2010[3].<br/>This report details experiments performed to investigate spills of liquid hydrogen at a rate of 60 litres per minute. Measurements were made on unignited releases which included concentration of hydrogen in air thermal gradient in the concrete substrate liquid pool formation and temperatures within the pool. Computational modelling of the unignited releases has been undertaken at HSL and reported in MSU/12/01 [4]. Ignited releases of hydrogen have also been performed as part of this project; the results and findings from this work are reported in XS/11/77[5].

If the hydrogen economy is to progress more hydrogen fuelling stations are required. In the short term in the absence of a hydrogen distribution network these fuelling stations will have to be supplied by liquid hydrogen (LH2) road tanker. Such a development will increase the number of tanker offloading operations significantly and these may need to be performed in close proximity to the general public.<br/>Several research projects have been undertaken already at HSL with the aim of identifying and addressing hazards relating to the storage and transport of bulk LH2 that are associated with hydrogen refuelling stations located in urban environments.<br/>The first phase of the research was to produce a position paper on the hazards of LH2 (Pritchard and Rattigan 2009). This was published as an HSE research report RR769 in 2010.  <br/>The second phase developed an experimental and modelling strategy for issues associated with LH2 spills and was published as an internal report HSL XS/10/06. The subsequent experimental work is a direct implementation of that strategy. LH2 was first investigated experimentally (Royle and Willoughby 2012 HSL XS/11/70) as large-scale spills of LH2 at a rate of 60 litres per minute. Measurements were made on unignited releases which included the concentration of hydrogen in air thermal gradients in the concrete substrate liquid pool formation and temperatures within the pool. Computational modelling on the un-ignited spills was also performed (Batt and Webber 2012 HSL MSU/12/01).<br/>The experimental work on ignited releases of LH2 detailed in this report is a direct continuation of the work performed by Royle and Willoughby.<br/>The aim of this work was to determine the hazards and severity of a realistic ignited spill of LH2 focussing on; flammability limits of an LH2 vapour cloud flame speeds through an LH2 vapour cloud and subsequent radiative heat and overpressures after ignition. The results of the experimentation will inform the wider hydrogen community and contribute to the development of more robust modelling tools. The results will also help to update and develop guidance for codes and standards.

Egypt has one of the largest economies in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and several of its industries are large sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. As part of its contribution to mitigate GHG emissions within the framework of the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change Egypt is focusing on the development of an ambitious renewable energy programme.

Some of Egypt’s main industries are big consumers of hydrogen which is produced locally using indigenous natural gas without abatement of the CO2 emissions resulting from this production process. In the long-term the production and consumption of this unabated hydrogen known as grey hydrogen could become a serious challenge for Egypt’s exports of manufactured products. Thus the Egyptian government is planning to develop low carbon hydrogen alternatives and has set up an inter-ministerial committee to prepare a national hydrogen strategy for Egypt.

This paper explores the prospects for low carbon hydrogen (blue and green hydrogen) developments in Egypt focusing on the potential replacement of Egypt’s large domestic production of grey hydrogen with cleaner low carbon hydrogen alternatives.

The research paper can be found on their website

The Energy Innovation Needs Assessment (EINA) aims to identify the key innovation needs across the UK’s energy system to inform the prioritisation of public sector investment in low-carbon innovation. Using an analytical methodology developed by the Department for Business Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS) the EINA takes a system level approach and values innovations in a technology in terms of the system-level benefits a technology innovation provides. This whole system modelling in line with BEIS’s EINA methodology was delivered by the Energy Systems Catapult (ESC) using the Energy System Modelling Environment (ESMETM) as the primary modelling tool.

To support the overall prioritisation of innovation activity the EINA process analyses key technologies in more detail. These technologies are grouped together into sub-themes according to the primary role they fulfil in the energy system. For key technologies within a sub-theme innovations and business opportunities are identified. The main findings at the technology level are summarised in sub-theme reports. An overview report will combine the findings from each sub-theme to provide a broad system-level perspective and prioritisation.

This EINA analysis is based on a combination of desk research by a consortium of economic and engineering consultants and stakeholder engagement. The prioritisation of innovation and business opportunities presented is informed by a workshop organised for each sub-theme assembling key stakeholders from the academic community industry and government.

This report was commissioned prior to advice being received from the CCC on meeting a net zero target and reflects priorities to meet the previous 80% target in 2050. The newly legislated net zero target is not expected to change the set of innovation priorities rather it will make them all more valuable overall. Further work is required to assess detailed implications.

The main purpose of this report is to specify the minimum standards of control which should be in place at all establishments storing large volumes of gasoline.<br/>The PSLG also considered other substances capable of giving rise to a large flammable vapour cloud in the event of a loss of primary containment. However to ensure priority was given to improving standards of control to tanks storing gasoline PSLG has yet to determine the scale and application of this guidance to such substances. It is possible that a limited number of other substances (with specific physical properties and storage arrangements) will be addressed in the future.<br/>This report also provides guidance on good practice in relation to secondary and tertiary containment for facilities covered by the CA Control of Major Accident Hazards (COMAH) Parts of this guidance may also be relevant to other major hazard establishments.

The single-phase multi-principal-component CoFeMnTiVZr alloy was obtained by rapid solidification and examined by a combination of electrochemical methods and gas–solid reactions. X-ray diffraction and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy analyses reveal a hexagonal Laves-phase structure (type C14). Cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy investigations in the hydrogen absorption/desorption region give insight into the absorption/desorption kinetics and the change in the desorption charge in terms of the applied potential. The thickness of the hydrogen absorption layer obtained by the electrochemical reaction is estimated by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. The electrochemical hydrogen storage capacity for a given applied voltage is calculated from a series of chronoamperometry and cyclic voltammetry measurements. The selected alloy exhibits good stability for reversible hydrogen absorption and demonstrates a maximum hydrogen capacity of ∼1.9 wt% at room temperature. The amount of hydrogen absorbed in the gas–solid reaction reaches 1.7 wt% at 298 K and 5 MPa evidencing a good correlation with the electrochemical results.

Conventional technologies are largely powered by fossil fuel exploitation and have ultimately led to extensive environmental concerns. Hydrogen is an excellent carbon-free energy carrier but its storage and long-distance transportation remain big challenges. Ammonia however is a promising indirect hydrogen storage medium that has well-established storage and transportation links to make it an accessible fuel source. Moreover the notion of ‘green ammonia’ synthesised from renewable energy sources is an emerging topic that may open significant markets and provide a pathway to decarbonise a variety of applications reliant on fossil fuels. Herein a comparative study based on the chosen design working principles advantages and disadvantages of direct ammonia fuel cells is summarised. This work aims to review the most recent advances in ammonia fuel cells and demonstrates how close this technology type is to integration with future applications. At present several challenges such as material selection NO_x formation CO₂ tolerance limited power densities and long term stability must still be overcome and are also addressed within the contents of this review.

As energy systems transition from fossil-based to low-carbon they face many challenges particularly concerning energy security and flexibility. Hydrogen may help to overcome these challenges with potential as a transport fuel for heating energy storage conversion to electricity and in industry. Despite these opportunities hydrogen has historically had a limited role in influential global energy scenarios. Whilst more recent studies are beginning to include hydrogen the role it plays in different scenarios is extremely inconsistent. In this perspective paper reasons for this inconsistency are explored considering the modelling approach behind the scenario scenario design and data assumptions. We argue that energy systems are becoming increasingly complex and it is within these complexities that new technologies such as hydrogen emerge. Developing a global energy scenario that represents these complexities is challenging and in this paper we provide recommendations to help ensure that emerging technologies such as hydrogen are appropriately represented. These recommendations include: using the right modelling tools whilst knowing the limits of the model; including the right sectors and technologies; having an appropriate level of ambition; and making realistic data assumptions. Above all transparency is essential and global scenarios must do more to make available the modelling methods and data assumptions used.

As the world looks to recover from the impact of coronavirus on our lives livelihoods and economies we have the chance to build back better: to invest in making the UK a global leader in green technologies.

The plan focuses on increasing ambition in the following areas:

• advancing offshore wind
• driving the growth of low carbon hydrogen
• delivering new and advanced nuclear power
• accelerating the shift to zero emission vehicles
• green public transport cycling and walking
• ‘jet zero’ and green ships
• greener buildings
• investing in carbon capture usage and storage
• protecting our natural environment
• green finance and innovation

The ten point plan will mobilise £12 billion of government investment and potentially 3 times as much from the private sector to create and support up to 250000 green jobs.

The storage of hydrogen in materials has received a significant amount of attention in recent years because this approach is widely thought to be one of the most promising solutions to the problem of storing hydrogen for use as an alternative energy carrier in a safe compact and affordable form. However there have been a number of high profile cases in which erroneous or irreproducible data have been published. Meanwhile the irreproducibility of research results in a wide range of disciplines has been the subject of an increasing amount of attention due to problems with some of the data in the literature. In this Perspective we provide a summary of the problems that have affected hydrogen storage material research. We also discuss the reasons behind them and possible ways of reducing the likelihood of further problems occurring in the future.

Scotland’s Climate Change Plan set an ambition for emissions from buildings to be near zero by 2050 and targets 35% of domestic and 70% of non-domestic buildings’ heat to be supplied using low carbon technologies by 2032. The Climate Change (Emissions Reduction Targets) (Scotland) Act 2019 set a new target for emissions to be net zero by 2045 with interim targets of 75% by 2030 and 90% by 2040. The update to the Climate Change Plan will be published at the end of 2020 to reflect these new targets. The Energy Efficient Scotland programme launched in May 2018 sets out a wide range of measures to promote low carbon heating alongside energy efficiency improvements in Scotland’s buildings. Meeting these targets will require almost all households in Scotland to change the way they heat their homes. It is therefore imperative to advance our understanding of the suitability of the available low carbon heating options across Scotland’s building stock.<br/><br/>The aim of this work is to assess the suitability of low carbon heating technologies in residential buildings in Scotland. The outputs generated through this work will form a key part of the evidence base on low carbon heat which the Scottish Government will use to further develop and strengthen Scotland’s low carbon heat policy in line with the increased level of ambition of achieving Net Zero by 2045.

Hydrogen is an emerging energy vector many components of which are mature technologies. Current hydrogen technology is already able to provide advantages over other energy vectors and many of its challenges are being actively addressed by research and development.<br/><br/>Hydrogen can be derived stored and converted through various processes each of which represents different levels of carbon intensity efficiency and end use functionality. Our latest five minute guide looks at this energy vector in brief including public perception transportation and storage as well as using hydrogen as a solution.

Expectations for energy storage are high but large-scale underground hydrogen storage in porous media (UHSP) remains largely untested. This article identifies and discusses the scientific challenges of hydrogen storage in porous media for safe and efficient large-scale energy storage to enable a global hydrogen economy. To facilitate hydrogen supply on the scales required for a zero-carbon future it must be stored in porous geological formations such as saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs. Large-scale UHSP offers the much-needed capacity to balance inter-seasonal discrepancies between demand and supply decouple energy generation from demand and decarbonise heating and transport supporting decarbonisation of the entire energy system. Despite the vast opportunity provided by UHSP the maturity is considered low and as such UHSP is associated with several uncertainties and challenges. Here the safety and economic impacts triggered by poorly understood key processes are identified such as the formation of corrosive hydrogen sulfide gas hydrogen loss due to the activity of microbes or permeability changes due to geochemical interactions impacting on the predictability of hydrogen flow through porous media. The wide range of scientific challenges facing UHSP are outlined to improve procedures and workflows for the hydrogen storage cycle from site selection to storage site operation. Multidisciplinary research including reservoir engineering chemistry geology and microbiology more complex than required for CH₄ or CO₂ storage is required in order to implement the safe efficient and much needed large-scale commercial deployment of UHSP.

Energy storage is a promising approach to address the challenge of intermittent generation from renewables on the electric grid. In this work we evaluate energy storage with a regenerative hydrogen fuel cell (RHFC) using net energy analysis. We examine the most widely installed RHFC configuration containing an alkaline water electrolyzer and a PEM fuel cell. To compare RHFC's to other storage technologies we use two energy return ratios: the electrical energy stored on invested (ESOI_e) ratio (the ratio of electrical energy returned by the device over its lifetime to the electrical-equivalent energy required to build the device) and the overall energy efficiency (the ratio of electrical energy returned by the device over its lifetime to total lifetime electrical-equivalent energy input into the system). In our reference scenario the RHFC system has an ESOI_eratio of 59 more favorable than the best battery technology available today (Li-ion ESOI_e= 35). (In the reference scenario RHFC the alkaline electrolyzer is 70% efficient and has a stack lifetime of 100 000 h; the PEM fuel cell is 47% efficient and has a stack lifetime of 10 000 h; and the round-trip efficiency is 30%.) The ESOIe ratio of storage in hydrogen exceeds that of batteries because of the low energy cost of the materials required to store compressed hydrogen and the high energy cost of the materials required to store electric charge in a battery. However the low round-trip efficiency of a RHFC energy storage system results in very high energy costs during operation and a much lower overall energy efficiency than lithium ion batteries (0.30 for RHFC vs. 0.83 for lithium ion batteries). RHFC's represent an attractive investment of manufacturing energy to provide storage. On the other hand their round-trip efficiency must improve dramatically before they can offer the same overall energy efficiency as batteries which have round-trip efficiencies of 75–90%. One application of energy storage that illustrates the trade-off between these different aspects of energy performance is capturing overgeneration (spilled power) for later use during times of peak output from renewables. We quantify the relative energetic benefit of adding different types of energy storage to a renewable generating facility using [EROI]grid. Even with 30% round-trip efficiency RHFC storage achieves the same [EROI]grid as batteries when storing overgeneration from wind turbines because its high ESOI_eratio and the high EROI of wind generation offset the low round-trip efficiency.

As the global electricity systems are shaped by decentralisation digitalisation and decarbonisation the World Energy Council’s Innovation Insights Briefs explore the new frontiers in energy transitions and the challenges of keeping pace with fast moving developments. We use leadership interviews to map the state of play and case studies across the whole energy landscape and build a broader and deeper picture of new developments within and beyond the new energy technology value chain and business ecosystem.<br/><br/>With major decarbonisation efforts and the scaling up of renewable power generation the widespread adoption of energy storage continues to be described as the key game changer for electricity systems. Affordable storage systems are a critical missing link between intermittent renewable power and a 24/7 reliability net-zero carbon scenario. Beyond solving this salient challenge energy storage is being increasingly considered to meet other needs such as relieving congestion or smoothing out the variations in power that occur independently of renewable-energy generation. However whilst there is plenty of visionary thinking recent progress has focused on short-duration and battery-based energy storage for efficiency gains and ancillary services; there is limited progress in developing daily weekly and even seasonal cost-effective solutions which are indispensable for a global reliance on intermittent renewable energy sources.

There is uncertainty over how heating might practically be decarbonised in the future. This briefing provides some clarity about the possible pathways forward focusing on the next 5-10 years.<br/>Meeting the UK government’s net zero emissions goal for 2050 will only be possible by complete decarbonisation of the building stock (both existing and new).  There is uncertainty over the extent to which heating might practically be decarbonised in the future and what the optimal technologies may be. This paper provides some clarity about the pathways forward focusing on the next 5-10 years.

Replacing natural gas with hydrogen in an everyday setting – piping hydrogen to homes and businesses through the existing gas network – is a new and untested proposition. At the same time piloting this proposition is an essential ingredient to a well-managed low carbon transition.<br/>The Department of Business Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) has commissioned CAG Consultants to undertake a literature review and conduct a set of four focus groups to inform the development of work to assess issues associated with setting up a hypothetical community hydrogen trial. This report sets out the findings from the research and presents reflections on the implications of the findings for any future community hydrogen heating trials.<br/>The literature review was a short focused review aimed at identifying evidence relevant to members of the public being asked to take part in a hypothetical community trial. Based primarily on Quick Scoping Review principles the review involved the analysis of evidence from 26 items of literature. The four focus groups were held in-person in two city locations Manchester and Birmingham in November 2019. They involved consumers who either owned or rented houses (i.e. not flats) connected to the gas grid. Two of the focus groups involved owner-occupiers one was with private landlords and the other was with a mixture of tenants (private social and student).<br/>This report was produced in October 2019 and published in December 2020. 

Hydrogen remains an important option for long-term decarbonisation of energy and transport systems. However studying the possible transition paths and development prospects for a hydrogen energy system is challenging. The long-term nature of technological transitions inevitably means profound uncertainties diverging perspectives and contested priorities. Both modelling approaches and narrative storyline scenarios are widely used to explore the possible future of hydrogen energy but each approach has shortcomings.<br/>This paper presents a hybrid approach to assessing hydrogen transitions in the UK by confronting qualitative socio-technical scenarios with quantitative energy systems modelling through a process of ‘dialogue’ between scenario and model. Three possible transition pathways are explored each exploring different uncertainties and possible decision points. Conclusions are drawn for both the future of hydrogen and on the value of an approach that brings quantitative formal models and narrative scenario techniques into dialogue.

A solid-state hydrogen storage material comprising ammonia borane (AB) and polyethylene oxide (PEO) has been produced by freeze-drying from aqueous solutions from 0% to 100% AB by mass. The phase mixing behaviour of AB and PEO has been investigated using X-ray diffraction which shows that a new ‘intermediate’ crystalline phase exists different from both AB and PEO as observed in our previous work (Nathanson et al. 2015). It is suggested that hydrogen bonding interactions between the ethereal oxygen atom (–O–) in the PEO backbone and the protic hydrogen atoms attached to the nitrogen atom (N–H) of AB molecules promote the formation of a reaction intermediate leading to lowered hydrogen release temperatures in the composites compared to neat AB. PEO also acts to significantly reduce the foaming of AB during hydrogen release. A temperature-composition phase diagram has been produced for the AB-PEO system to show the relationship between phase mixing and hydrogen release.

HyNet North West (NW) is an innovative integrated low carbon hydrogen production distribution and carbon capture utilisation and storage (CCUS) project. It provides hydrogen distribution and CCUS infrastructure across Liverpool Manchester and parts of Cheshire in support of the Government’s Clean Growth Strategy (CGS) and achievement of the UK’s emissions reduction targets.<br/>Hydrogen will be produced from natural gas and sent via a new pipeline to a range of industrial sites for injection as a blend into the existing natural gas network and for use as a transport fuel. Resulting carbon dioxide (CO2) will be captured and together with CO2 from local industry which is already available sent by pipeline for storage offshore in the nearby Liverpool Bay gas fields. Key data for the Project are presented in Table ES1.

Plasmonic Ni nanoparticles were incorporated into LaFeO₃ photocathode (LFO-Ni) to excite the surface plasmon resonances (SPR) for enhanced light harvesting for enhancing the photoelectrochemical (PEC) hydrogen evolution reaction. The nanostructured LFO photocathode was prepared by spray pyrolysis method and Ni nanoparticles were incorporated on to the photocathode by spin coating technique. The LFO-Ni photocathode demonstrated strong optical absorption and higher current density where the untreated LFO film exhibited a maximum photocurrent of 0.036 mA/cm² at 0.6 V vs RHE and when incorporating 2.84 mmol Ni nanoparticles the photocurrent density reached a maximum of 0.066 mA/cm² at 0.6 V vs RHE due to the SPR effect. This subsequently led to enhanced hydrogen production where more than double (2.64 times) the amount of hydrogen was generated compared to the untreated LFO photocathode. Ni nanoparticles were modelled using Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) analysis and the results showed optimal particle size in the range of 70–100 nm for Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) enhancement.

A key challenge for future clean power or hydrogen projects via gasification is the need to reduce the overall cost while achieving significant levels of CO2 capture. The current state of the art technology for capturing CO2 from sour syngas uses a physical solvent absorption process (acid gas removal–AGR) such as Selexol™ or Rectisol® to selectively separate H2S and CO2 from the H2. These two processes are expensive and require significant utility consumption during operation which only escalates with increasing levels of CO2 capture. Importantly Air Products has developed an alternative option that can achieve a higher level of CO2 capture than the conventional technologies at significantly lower capital and operating costs. Overall the system is expected to reduce the cost of CO2 capture by over 25%.<br/>Air Products developed this novel technology by leveraging years of experience in the design and operation of H2 pressure swing adsorption (PSA) systems in its numerous steam methane reformers. Commercial PSAs typically operate on clean syngas and thus need an upstream AGR unit to operate in a gasification process. Air Products recognized that a H2 PSA technology adapted to handle sour feedgas (Sour PSA) would enable a new and enhanced improvement to a gasification system. The complete Air Products CO2 Capture technology (CCT) for sour syngas consists of a Sour PSA unit followed by a low-BTU sour oxycombustion unit and finally a CO2 purification / compression system.

Kinetic rate data for steam methane reforming (SMR) coupled with water gas shift (WGS) over an 18 wt. % NiO/α-Al₂O₃ catalyst are presented in the temperature range of 300–700 °C at 1 bar. The experiments were performed in a plug flow reactor under the conditions of diffusion limitations and away from the equilibrium conditions. The kinetic model was implemented in a one-dimensional heterogeneous mathematical model of catalytic packed bed reactor developed on gPROMS model builder 4.1.0®. The mathematical model of SMR process was simulated and the model was validated by comparing the results with the experimental values. The simulation results were in excellent agreement with the experimental results. The effect of various operating parameters such as temperature pressure and steam to carbon ratio on fuel and water conversion (%) H2 yield (wt. % of CH4) and H2 purity was modelled and compared with the equilibrium values.

Biomimetic sulfur-deficient indium sulfide (In_2.77S₄) was synthesized by a template-assisted hydrothermal method using leaves of Mimosa pudica as a template for the first time. The effect of this template in modifying the morphology of the semiconductor particles was determined by physicochemical characterization revealing an increase in surface area decrease in microsphere size and pore size and an increase in pore volume density in samples synthesized with the template. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis showed the presence of organic sulfur (Ssingle bondO/Ssingle bondC/Ssingle bondH) and sulfur oxide species (single bondSO₂ SO₃²− SO₄²−) at the surface of the indium sulfide in samples synthesized with the template. Biomimetic indium sulfide also showed significant amounts of Fe introduced as a contaminant present on the Mimosa pudica leaves. The presence of these sulfur and iron species favors the photocatalytic activity for hydrogen production by their acting as a sacrificial reagent and promoting water oxidation on the surface of the templated particles respectively. The photocatalytic hydrogen production rates over optimally-prepared biomimetic indium sulfide and indium sulfide synthesized without the organic template were 73 and 22 μmol g⁻¹ respectively indicating an improvement by a factor of three in the templated sample.

Renewable methanol obtained from CO₂ and hydrogen provided from renewable energy was proposed to close the CO₂ loop. In industry methanol synthesis using the catalyst CuO/ZnO/Al₂O₃ occurs at a high pressure. We intend to make certain modification on the traditional catalyst to work at lower pressure maintaining high selectivity. Therefore three heterogeneous catalysts were synthesized by coprecipitation to improve the activity and the selectivity to methanol under mild conditions of temperature and pressure. Certain modifications on the traditional catalyst Cu/Zn/Al₂O₃ were employed such as the modification of the synthesis time and the addition of Pd as a dopant agent. The most efficient catalyst among those tested was a palladium-doped catalyst 5% Pd/Cu/Zn/Al₂O₃. This had a selectivity of 64% at 210 °C and 5 bar.

This project provides evidence to identify the key innovation needs across the UK’s energy system to inform the prioritisation of public sector investment in low-carbon innovation including any future phases of the Department for Business Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS) Energy Innovation1 Programme. The BEIS Energy Innovation Programme aims to accelerate the commercialisation of innovative clean energy technologies and processes into the 2020s and 2030s. The current Programme with a budget of £505 million from 2015-2021 consists of six themes and invests in smart systems industry & CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage) the built environment nuclear renewables and support for energy entrepreneurs and green financing.



Vivid Economics was contracted to lead a consortium with technical expertise in each of the Energy Innovation Needs Assessment (EINA) priority areas. The programme relied on evidence from a programme of workshops with over 180 participants energy system modelling and detailed technical advice. Partners include the Carbon Trust E4tech Imperial College London and Fraser-Nash. The Energy Systems Catapult (ESC) provided analytical evidence using their Energy System Modelling Environment (ESME) to support an early pre-screening of technologies.



Innovations have been prioritised where there is a strong case for UK Government investment. The prioritisation in this report is based on evidence of the potential benefits to the UK via a lower cost energy system and larger export markets. We also consider whether there is a need for UK Government intervention in addition to private and international efforts.

 

A distinctive feature of this project is its focus on innovation that benefits the whole energy system. Internationally there are other efforts attempting to answer the question of where to target resources to maximise benefits from innovation2. In selecting priorities we identify innovations that can unlock value across electricity heat transport sectors and the rest of the economy.

This report contains information on the relative risks of natural gas and hydrogen fires particularly regarding their visibility. The fires considered are those that could occur on the H100 Fife trial network. The H100 Fife project will connect a number of residential houses to 100% hydrogen gas supply. The project includes hydrogen production storage and a new distribution network. From a review of large and small-scale tests and incidents it is concluded that hydrogen flames are likely to be clearly visible for releases above 2 bar particularly for larger release rates. At lower pressures hydrogen flame visibility will be affected by ambient lighting background colour and release orientation although this is also the case for natural gas. Potential safety implications from lack of flame  visibility are that SGN workers other utility workers or members of the public could inadvertently come into contact with an ignited release. However some releases would be detected through noise thrown soil or interaction with objects. From a workshop and review of risk reduction measures and analysis of historical interference damage incidents it is concluded that flames with the potential for reduced visibility are adequately controlled. This is due to the likelihood of such scenarios occurring being low and that the consequences of coming into contact with such a flame are unlikely to be severe. These conclusions are supported by cost-benefit analysis that shows that no additional risk mitigation measures are justified for the H100 project. It is recommended that the cost-benefit analysis is revisited before applying the approach to a network wider than the H100 project. It was observed that the addition of odorant at relevant concentrations did not have an effect on the visibility of hydrogen flames.

This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.

Power-to-gas is a key area of interest for decarbonisation and increasing flexibility in energy systems as it has the potential both to absorb renewable electricity at times of excess supply and to provide backup energy at times of excess demand. By integrating power-to-gas with the natural gas grid it is possible to exploit the inherent linepack flexibility of the grid and shift some electricity variability onto the gas grid. Furthermore provided the gas injected into the gas grid is low-carbon such as hydrogen from renewable power-to-gas then overall greenhouse gas emissions from the gas grid can be reduced.<br/>This work presents the first review of power-to-gas to consider real-life projects economic assessments and systems modelling studies and to compare them based on scope assumptions and outcomes. The review focuses on power-to-gas for injection into the gas grid as this application has specific economic technical and modelling opportunities and challenges.<br/>The review identified significant interest in and potential for power-to-gas in combination with the gas grid however there are still challenges to overcome to find profitable business cases and manage local and system-wide technical issues. Whilst significant modelling of power-to-gas has been undertaken more is needed to fully understand the impacts of power-to-gas and gas grid injection on the operational behaviour of the gas grid taking into account dynamic and spatial effects.

The establishment of a strong hydrogen economy nationally and locally is a very real opportunity and one that is rapidly becoming within reach.<br/>This report presents a vision for the role that hydrogen could play specifically in South Yorkshire (UK) to help meet carbon reduction targets and contribute to the health and economic prosperity of the region.<br/>It also highlights five themes as levers of growth and explores potential actions and collaborations as well as a list of ambitions for future hydrogen projects. Hydrogen can be used in transport industry and heating. Synergies need exploring for example the by-product of oxygen from hydrogen production can be used by industry. Aggregating opportunities is important in developing a hydrogen economy.<br/>The report concludes with a call to action to build momentum for the South Yorkshire hydrogen economy and accelerate the drive to net zero emissions particularly in the most challenging sectors.<br/>This South Yorkshire specific report supports our global thought piece Establishing a Hydrogen Economy: The future of energy 2035

We investigate the influence of microstructural traps in hydrogen-assisted fatigue crack growth. To this end a new formulation combining multi-trap stress-assisted diffusion mechanism-based strain gradient plasticity and a hydrogen- and fatigue-dependent cohesive zone model is presented and numerically implemented. The results show that the ratio of loading frequency to effective diffusivity governs fatigue crack growth behaviour. Increasing the density of beneficial traps not involved in the fracture process results in lower fatigue crack growth rates. The combinations of loading frequency and carbide trap densities that minimise embrittlement susceptibility are identified providing the foundation for a rational design of hydrogen-resistant alloys.

The H21 Leeds City Gate project is a study with the aim of determining the feasibility from both a technical and economic viewpoint of converting the existing natural gas network in Leeds one of the largest UK cities to 100% hydrogen. The project has been designed to minimise disruption for existing customers and to deliver heat at the same cost as current natural gas to customers. The project has shown that:

• The gas network has the correct capacity for such a conversion
• It can be converted incrementally with minimal disruption to customers
• Minimal new energy infrastructure will be required compared to alternatives
• The existing heat demand for Leeds can be met via steam methane reforming and salt cavern storage using technology in use around the world today

The project has provided costs for the scheme and has modelled these costs in a regulatory finance model. In addition the availability of low-cost bulk hydrogen in a gas network could revolutionise the potential for hydrogen vehicles and via fuel cells support a decentralised model of combined heat and power and localised power generation.

This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.

As part of FCH-JU funded HyCoRA project running from 2014 to 2017 28 gaseous and 13 particulate samples were collected from hydrogen refuelling stations in Europe. Samples were collected with commercial sampling instruments and analysis performed in compliance with prevailing fuel quality standards. Sampling was conducted with focus on diversity in feedstock as well as commissioning date of the HRS. Results indicate that the strategy for sampling was good. No evidence of impurity cross-over was observed. Parallel samples collected indicate some variation in analytical results. It was however found that fuel quality was generally good. Fourteen analytical results were in violation with the fuel tolerance limits. Therefore eight or 29% of the samples were in violation with the fuel quality requirements. Nitrogen oxygen and organics were the predominant impurities quantified. Particulate impurities were found to be within fuel quality specifications. No correlation between fuel quality and hydrogen feedstock or HRS commissioning date was found. Nitrogen to oxygen ratios gave no indication of samples being contaminated by air. A comparison of analytical results between two different laboratories were conducted. Some difference in analytical results were observed.

The European Regulations on type-approval of hydrogen vehicles require thermally-activated pressure relief device (TPRD) to be installed on hydrogen onboard storage tanks to release its content in a fire event to prevent its catastrophic rupture. The aim of this study is to develop a model for design of an inherently safer system TPRD-storage tank. Parameters of tank materials and hydrogen external heat flux from the fire to the tank wall TPRD diameter time to initiate TPRD are input parameters of the model. The energy conservation equation and real gas equation of state are employed to describe the dynamic behaviour of the system. The under-expanded jet theory developed previously for adiabatic release from a storage tank is applied here to non-adiabatic blowdown of a tank in a fire. Unsteady heat transfer equation is used to calculate heat conduction through the tank wall. It includes the decomposition of the wall material due to high heat flux. The convective heat transfer between tank wall and hydrogen is modelled through the dimensionless Nusselt number correlations. The model is validated against two types of experiments i.e. realistic (non-adiabatic) blowdown of high-pressure storage tank and failure of a tank without TPRD in a fire. The model is confirmed to be time efficient for computations and accurately predicts the dynamic pressure and temperature of the gas inside the tank temperature profile within the tank wall time to tank rupture in a fire and the blowdown time.

During the exemption application process the original report was evaluated as part of a regulatory review and responses to questions submitted for further consideration. These have been addressed in this revised version (revision 1) in the form of an addendum. The addendum includes the question raised its number and the response to it. The area of the main body of the report to which each question and response refers is indicated by square brackets and the addendum number e.g. [A1].<br/>Through analysis of the literature and results of the practical testing the susceptibility of materials present in the Winlaton trial site to hydrogen degradation has been assessed with consideration of the Winlaton operating conditions (up to 20% H2 at total blend pressures of 20 mbar – 2 bar). The aim of this report has been to determine whether there are any components which have been identified at the Winlaton trial site which could have a significantly increased risk of failure due to their exposure to hydrogen during the one year trial. Where possible direct supporting data has been used to make assessments on the likelihood of failure; in other cases the assessment was aided by collaborative expert opinion in the fields of mechanical engineering materials science and the domestic gas industry.<br/>Click on the supplements tab to view the other documents from this report

Preliminary research suggests domestic carbon monoxide detectors with an electrochemical sensor are approximately 10 -20% sensitive to hydrogen atmospheres in their factory configuration. That is the display on a carbon monoxide detector would give a carbon monoxide reading of approximately 10-20% of the concentration of hydrogen it is exposed to. Current British standards require detectors to sound an alarm within three minutes when subjected to a continuous concentration of ≥ 300 ppm CO. This would equate to a concentration of 1500-3000 ppm hydrogen in air or approximately 3.75 – 7% %LEL. The current evacuation criteria for a natural gas leak in a domestic property is 20 %LEL indicating that standard carbon monoxide detectors could be used as cheap and reliable early warning systems for hydrogen leaks. Given the wide use of carbon monoxide detectors and the affordability of the devices the use of carbon monoxide detectors for hydrogen detection is of particular interest as the UK drives towards energy decarbonisation. Experiments to determine the exact sensitivity of a range of the most common domestic carbon monoxide detectors have been completed by DNV Spadeadam Research & Testing. Determining the effects of repeated exposure to varying concentrations of hydrogen in air on the sensitivity of electrochemical sensors allows recommendations to be made on their adoption as hydrogen detectors. Changing the catalysts used within the electrochemical cell would improve the sensitivity to hydrogen however simply calibrating the sensor to report a concentration of hydrogen rather than carbon monoxide would represent no additional costs to manufacturers. Having determined the suitability of such sensors at an early stage; the technology can then be linked with other technological developments required for the change to hydrogen for domestic heating (e.g. change in metering equipment and appliances). This report finds that from five simple and widely available carbon monoxide detectors the lowest sensitivity to hydrogen measured at the concentration required to sound an alarm within three minutes was approximately 10%. It was also discovered that as the hydrogen concentration was increased over the range tested the sensitivity to hydrogen also increased. It is proposed that coupling these devices with other elements of the domestic gas system would allow actions such as remote meter isolation or automatic warning signals sent to response services would provide a reliable and inherently safe system for protecting occupants as gas networks transition to net-zero greenhouse gas emissions. In this respect it is noted that wireless linking of smoke and heat detectors for domestic application is already widely available in low-cost devices. This could be extended to CO detectors adapted for hydrogen use.

Hydrogen Mobility Europe (H2ME 2015–2022) is the largest European Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (EU FCH JU)-funded hydrogen light vehicle and infrastructure demonstration. Up until April 2017 the 40 Daimler passenger car fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and 62 Symbio Fuel Cell-Range Extended Electric Vans (FC-REEV)-vans deployed by the project drove 625300 km and consumed a total of 7900 kg of hydrogen with no safety incidents. During its first year of operation (to April 2017) the NEL Hydrogen Fueling HRS (hydrogen refuelling station) in Kolding Denmark dispensed 900 kg of hydrogen and demonstrated excellent reliability (98.2% availability) with no safety incidents. The average hydrogen refuelling time for passenger cars is comparable to that for conventional vehicles (2–3 min).

Hydrogen has been hailed as a promising energy carrier for decades. But compared to the thriving success of hybrid and plug-in electric cars the prospects for cars powered by hydrogen fuel cells have recently diminished mostly due to challenges in bringing down the costs of fuel cells and developing a broad network of fuelling stations.<br/>Beginning in March 2020 three major auto manufacturers—Daimler AG] Volkswagen and General Motors (GM)]—followed the April 2019 move by Honda to back out of the hydrogen-powered passenger car market. Instead these companies and others are looking to develop the technology as an emission-free solution to power heavy commercial and military vehicles with refuelling taking place at centralized locations.