United Kingdom
Green Hydrogen in the UK: Progress and Prospects
Apr 2022
Publication
Green hydrogen has been known in the UK since Robert Boyle described flammable air in 1671. This paper describes how green hydrogen has become a new priority for the UK in 2021 beginning to replace fossil hydrogen production exceeding 1 Mte in 2021 when the British Government started to inject significant funding into green hydrogen sources though much less than the USA Germany Japan and China. Recent progress in the UK was initiated in 2008 when the first UK green hydrogen station opened in Birmingham University refuelling 5 hydrogen fuel cell battery electric vehicles (HFCBEVs) for the 50 PhD chemical engineering students that arrived in 2009. Only 10 kg/day were required in contrast to the first large green ITM power station delivering almost 600 kg/day of green hydrogen that opened in the UK in Tyseley in July 2021. The first question asked in this paper is: ‘What do you mean Green?’. Then the Clean Air Zone (CAZ) in Birmingham is described with the key innovations defined. Progress in UK green hydrogen and fuel cell introduction is then recounted. The remarks of Elon Musk about this ‘Fool Cell; Mind bogglingly stupid’ technology are analysed to show that he is incorrect. The immediate deployment of green hydrogen stations around the UK has been planned. Another century may be needed to make green hydrogen dominant across the country yet we will be on the correct path once a profitable supply chain is established in 2022.
Thermoacoustic Instability Considerations for High Hydrogen Combustion in Lean Premixed Gas Turbine Combustors: A Review
Jan 2021
Publication
Hydrogen is receiving increasing attention as a versatile energy vector to help accelerate the transition to a decarbonised energy future. Gas turbines will continue to play a critical role in providing grid stability and resilience in future low-carbon power systems; however it is recognised that this role is contingent upon achieving increased thermal efficiencies and the ability to operate on carbon-neutral fuels such as hydrogen. An important consideration in the development of gas turbine combustors capable of operating with pure hydrogen or hydrogen-enriched natural gas are the significant changes in thermoacoustic instability characteristics associated with burning these fuels. This article provides a review of the effects of burning hydrogen on combustion dynamics with focus on swirl-stabilised lean-premixed combustors. Experimental and numerical evidence suggests hydrogen can have either a stabilising or destabilising impact on the dynamic state of a combustor through its influence particularly on flame structure and flame position. Other operational considerations such as the effect of elevated pressure and piloting on combustion dynamics as well as recent developments in micromix burner technology for 100% hydrogen combustion have also been discussed. The insights provided in this review will aid the development of instability mitigation strategies for high hydrogen combustion.
World Energy Issues Monitor 2020: Decoding New Signals of Change
Oct 2020
Publication
ISSUES MONITOR 2020: DECODING NEW SIGNALS OF CHANGE
The annual World Energy Issues Monitor provides unique insight into what energy policymakers CEOs and leading experts identify as Critical Uncertainties and Action Priorities. New this year the Issues Monitor also provides readers with the views of the individual customer detailing their perceptions of their role in the overall energy system. The Issues Monitor report includes a global issues map 58 country maps and six regional maps as well as perspectives from Future Energy Leaders (FEL) and energy innovators.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
The 2020 global map incorporates all survey responses representing the views of over 3000 energy leaders from 104 countries. In this era of transition defined by decentralisation digitalisation and decarbonisation energy leaders must pay attention to many different signals of change and distinguish key issues from the noise. The Issues Monitor identifies shifting patterns of connected issues shaping energy transitions.
A NEW PULSE
The focus for the 2010s was about trying to automate and upgrade the energy system and set targets to move the energy transition forward. Digitalisation accelerated the transition of all sectors towards a more customer-centric environment. New policies and regulations were introduced to facilitate this transition and empower consumers. As a result the 2020s may very well be about realising those targets through a transition from activism to action.
TREND TRACKING: CCS
In comparing response from the Oil & Gas sector in 2015 with 2019 we found that almost half of respondents identified Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS) as a high impact issue in 2019 up from about a third in 2015. CCS is increasingly being viewed as an essential option for continued hydrocarbon use although governmental support is needed to enable scalability and cost effectiveness.
A DIFFERENCE IN OPINION: NUCLEAR
Opinions remain polarised but in many European countries nuclear power is increasingly recognised as a carbon-free energy source and potentially an integral part of the future energy mix. In December 2019 the European Commission set a target of net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. There is qualified support among energy leaders to include nuclear energy to help create a carbon neutral continent and enable a just energy transition.
The annual World Energy Issues Monitor provides unique insight into what energy policymakers CEOs and leading experts identify as Critical Uncertainties and Action Priorities. New this year the Issues Monitor also provides readers with the views of the individual customer detailing their perceptions of their role in the overall energy system. The Issues Monitor report includes a global issues map 58 country maps and six regional maps as well as perspectives from Future Energy Leaders (FEL) and energy innovators.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES
The 2020 global map incorporates all survey responses representing the views of over 3000 energy leaders from 104 countries. In this era of transition defined by decentralisation digitalisation and decarbonisation energy leaders must pay attention to many different signals of change and distinguish key issues from the noise. The Issues Monitor identifies shifting patterns of connected issues shaping energy transitions.
A NEW PULSE
The focus for the 2010s was about trying to automate and upgrade the energy system and set targets to move the energy transition forward. Digitalisation accelerated the transition of all sectors towards a more customer-centric environment. New policies and regulations were introduced to facilitate this transition and empower consumers. As a result the 2020s may very well be about realising those targets through a transition from activism to action.
TREND TRACKING: CCS
In comparing response from the Oil & Gas sector in 2015 with 2019 we found that almost half of respondents identified Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS) as a high impact issue in 2019 up from about a third in 2015. CCS is increasingly being viewed as an essential option for continued hydrocarbon use although governmental support is needed to enable scalability and cost effectiveness.
A DIFFERENCE IN OPINION: NUCLEAR
Opinions remain polarised but in many European countries nuclear power is increasingly recognised as a carbon-free energy source and potentially an integral part of the future energy mix. In December 2019 the European Commission set a target of net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. There is qualified support among energy leaders to include nuclear energy to help create a carbon neutral continent and enable a just energy transition.
H21- Leeds City Gate Project Report
Jul 2016
Publication
The H21 Leeds City Gate project is a study with the aim of determining the feasibility from both a technical and economic viewpoint of converting the existing natural gas network in Leeds one of the largest UK cities to 100% hydrogen. The project has been designed to minimise disruption for existing customers and to deliver heat at the same cost as current natural gas to customers. The project has shown that:
The project has provided costs for the scheme and has modelled these costs in a regulatory finance model. In addition the availability of low-cost bulk hydrogen in a gas network could revolutionise the potential for hydrogen vehicles and via fuel cells support a decentralised model of combined heat and power and localised power generation.
This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.
- The gas network has the correct capacity for such a conversion
- It can be converted incrementally with minimal disruption to customers
- Minimal new energy infrastructure will be required compared to alternatives
- The existing heat demand for Leeds can be met via steam methane reforming and salt cavern storage using technology in use around the world today
The project has provided costs for the scheme and has modelled these costs in a regulatory finance model. In addition the availability of low-cost bulk hydrogen in a gas network could revolutionise the potential for hydrogen vehicles and via fuel cells support a decentralised model of combined heat and power and localised power generation.
This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.
Cohesive Zone Modelling of Hydrogen Assisted Fatigue Crack Growth: The Role of Trapping
Apr 2022
Publication
We investigate the influence of microstructural traps in hydrogen-assisted fatigue crack growth. To this end a new formulation combining multi-trap stress-assisted diffusion mechanism-based strain gradient plasticity and a hydrogen- and fatigue-dependent cohesive zone model is presented and numerically implemented. The results show that the ratio of loading frequency to effective diffusivity governs fatigue crack growth behaviour. Increasing the density of beneficial traps not involved in the fracture process results in lower fatigue crack growth rates. The combinations of loading frequency and carbide trap densities that minimise embrittlement susceptibility are identified providing the foundation for a rational design of hydrogen-resistant alloys.
Investing in Hydrogen: Ready, Set, Net Zero
Sep 2020
Publication
Achieving the UK's net zero target by 2050 will be a challenge. Hydrogen can make a substantial contribution but it needs investment and policy support to establish demand increase the scale of deployment and reduce costs. The Ten Point Plan for a Green Industrial Revolution confirms the government’s commitment to drive the growth of low carbon hydrogen in the UK through a range of measures. This includes publishing its hydrogen strategy and setting out revenue mechanisms to attract private investment as well as allocating further support for hydrogen production and hydrogen applications in heating.
We have created a bespoke model to help understand the cost of hydrogen in the UK across the value chain under different pathways. Our analysis highlights areas for cost reduction and identifies factors that could make hydrogen more attractive to investors.
You can read the full report on the Deloitte website at this link
We have created a bespoke model to help understand the cost of hydrogen in the UK across the value chain under different pathways. Our analysis highlights areas for cost reduction and identifies factors that could make hydrogen more attractive to investors.
You can read the full report on the Deloitte website at this link
The Clean Growth Strategy: Leading the Way to a Low Carbon Future
Oct 2017
Publication
Seizing the clean growth opportunity. The move to cleaner economic growth is one of the greatest industrial opportunities of our time. This Strategy will ensure Britain is ready to seize that opportunity. Our modern Industrial Strategy is about increasing the earning power of people in every part of the country. We need to do that while not just protecting but improving the environment on which our economic success depends. In short we need higher growth with lower carbon emissions. This approach is at the heart of our Strategy for clean growth. The opportunity for people and business across the country is huge. The low carbon economy could grow 11 per cent per year between 2015 and 2030 four times faster than the projected growth of the economy as a whole. This is spread across a large number of sectors: from low cost low carbon power generators to more efficient farms; from innovators creating better batteries to the factories putting them in less polluting cars; from builders improving our homes so they are cheaper to run to helping businesses become more productive. This growth will not just be seen in the UK. Following the success of the Paris Agreement where Britain played such an important role in securing the landmark deal the transition to a global low carbon economy is gathering momentum. We want the UK to capture every economic opportunity it can from this global shift in technologies and services.<br/>Our approach to clean growth is an important element of our modern Industrial Strategy: building on the UK’s strengths; improving productivity across the country; and ensuring we are the best place for innovators and new businesses to start up and grow. A good example of this is offshore wind where costs have halved in just a few years. A combination of sustained commitment – across different Governments – and targeted public sector innovation support harnessing the expertise of UK engineers working in offshore conditions and private sector ingenuity has created the conditions for a new industry to flourish while cutting emissions. We need to replicate this success in sectors across our economy. This Strategy delivers on the challenge that Britain embraced when Parliament passed the Climate Change Act. If we get it right we will not just deliver reduced emissions but also cleaner air lower energy bills for households and businesses an enhanced natural environment good jobs and industrial opportunity. It is an opportunity we will seize.
Net Zero Review: Interim Report
Dec 2020
Publication
Climate change is an existential threat to humanity. Without global action to limit greenhouse gas emissions the climate will change catastrophically with almost unimaginable consequences for societies across the world. In recognition of the risks to the UK and other countries the UK became in 2019 the first major economy to implement a legally binding net zero target.<br/>The UK has made significant progress in decarbonising its economy but needs to go much further to achieve net zero. This will be a collective effort requiring changes from households businesses and government. It will require substantial investment and significant changes to how people live their lives.<br/>This transformation will also create opportunities for the UK economy. New industries and jobs will emerge as existing sectors decarbonise or give way to lowcarbon equivalents. The Ten Point Plan for a Green Industrial Revolution and Energy White Paper start to set out how the UK can make the most of these opportunities with new investment in sectors like offshore wind and hydrogen.1 The transition will also have distributional and competitiveness impacts that the government will need to consider as it designs policy.<br/>This interim report sets out the analysis so far from the Treasury’s Net Zero Review and seeks feedback on the approach ahead of the final report due to be published next year.
Spatially Resolved Optimization for Studying the Role of Hydrogen for Heat Decarbonization Pathways
Apr 2018
Publication
This paper studies the economic feasibility of installing hydrogen networks for decarbonizing heat in urban areas. The study uses the Heat Infrastructure and Technology (HIT) spatially resolved optimization model to trade-off energy supply infrastructure and end-use technology costs for the most important heat-related energy vectors: gas heat electricity and hydrogen. Two model formulations are applied to a UK urban area: one with an independent hydrogen network and one that allows for retrofitting the gas network into hydrogen. Results show that for average hydrogen price projections cost-effective pathways for heat decarbonization toward 2050 include heat networks supplied by a combination of district-level heat pumps and gas boilers in the domestic and commercial sectors and hydrogen boilers in the domestic sector. For a low hydrogen price scenario when retrofitting the gas network into hydrogen a cost-effective pathway is replacing gas by hydrogen boilers in the commercial sector and a mixture of hydrogen boilers and heat networks supplied by district-level heat pumps gas and hydrogen boilers for the domestic sector. Compared to the first modelled year CO2 emission reductions of 88% are achieved by 2050. These results build on previous research on the role of hydrogen in cost-effective heat decarbonization pathways.
Synthesis of Activated Ferrosilicon-based Microcomposites by Ball Milling and their Hydrogen Generation Properties
Jan 2019
Publication
Ferrosilicon 75 a 50:50 mixture of silicon and iron disilicide has been activated toward hydrogen generation by processing using ball milling allowing a much lower concentration of sodium hydroxide (2 wt %) to be used to generate hydrogen from the silicon in ferrosilicon with a shorter induction time than has been reported previously. An activation energy of 62 kJ/mol was determined for the reaction of ball-milled ferrosilicon powder with sodium hydroxide solution which is around 30 kJ/mol lower than that previously reported for unmilled ferrosilicon. A series of composite powders were also prepared by ball milling ferrosilicon with various additives in order to improve the hydrogen generation properties from ferrosilicon 75 and attempt to activate the silicon in the passivating FeSi2 component. Three different classes of additives were employed: salts polymers and sugars. The effects of these additives on hydrogen generation from the reaction of ferrosilicon with 2 wt% aqueous sodium hydroxide were investigated. It was found that composites formed of ferrosilicon and sodium chloride potassium chloride sodium polyacrylate sodium polystyrene sulfonate-co-maleic acid or fructose showed reduced induction times for hydrogen generation compared to that observed for ferrosilicon alone and all but fructose also led to an increase in the maximum hydrogen generation rate. In light of its low cost and toxicity and beneficial effects sodium chloride is considered to be the most effective of these additives for activating the silicon in ferrosilicon toward hydrogen generation. Materials characterisation showed that neither ball milling on its own nor use of additives was successful in activating the FeSi2 component of ferrosilicon for hydrogen generation and the improvement in rate and shortening of the induction period was attributed to the silicon component of the mixture alone The gravimetric storage capacity for hydrogen in ferrosilicon 75 is therefore maintained at only 3.5% rather than the 10.5% ideally expected for a material containing 75% silicon. In light of these results ferrosilicon 75 does not appear a good candidate for hydrogen production in portable applications.
Freeze-dried Ammonia Borane-polyethylene Oxide Composites: Phase Behaviour and Hydrogen Release
Feb 2018
Publication
A solid-state hydrogen storage material comprising ammonia borane (AB) and polyethylene oxide (PEO) has been produced by freeze-drying from aqueous solutions from 0% to 100% AB by mass. The phase mixing behaviour of AB and PEO has been investigated using X-ray diffraction which shows that a new ‘intermediate’ crystalline phase exists different from both AB and PEO as observed in our previous work (Nathanson et al. 2015). It is suggested that hydrogen bonding interactions between the ethereal oxygen atom (–O–) in the PEO backbone and the protic hydrogen atoms attached to the nitrogen atom (N–H) of AB molecules promote the formation of a reaction intermediate leading to lowered hydrogen release temperatures in the composites compared to neat AB. PEO also acts to significantly reduce the foaming of AB during hydrogen release. A temperature-composition phase diagram has been produced for the AB-PEO system to show the relationship between phase mixing and hydrogen release.
Advanced Hydrogen and CO2 Capture Technology for Sour Syngas
Apr 2011
Publication
A key challenge for future clean power or hydrogen projects via gasification is the need to reduce the overall cost while achieving significant levels of CO2 capture. The current state of the art technology for capturing CO2 from sour syngas uses a physical solvent absorption process (acid gas removal–AGR) such as Selexol™ or Rectisol® to selectively separate H2S and CO2 from the H2. These two processes are expensive and require significant utility consumption during operation which only escalates with increasing levels of CO2 capture. Importantly Air Products has developed an alternative option that can achieve a higher level of CO2 capture than the conventional technologies at significantly lower capital and operating costs. Overall the system is expected to reduce the cost of CO2 capture by over 25%.<br/>Air Products developed this novel technology by leveraging years of experience in the design and operation of H2 pressure swing adsorption (PSA) systems in its numerous steam methane reformers. Commercial PSAs typically operate on clean syngas and thus need an upstream AGR unit to operate in a gasification process. Air Products recognized that a H2 PSA technology adapted to handle sour feedgas (Sour PSA) would enable a new and enhanced improvement to a gasification system. The complete Air Products CO2 Capture technology (CCT) for sour syngas consists of a Sour PSA unit followed by a low-BTU sour oxycombustion unit and finally a CO2 purification / compression system.
Computational Analysis of Hydrogen Diffusion in Polycrystalline Nickel and Anisotropic Polygonal Micro, Nano Grain Size Effects
Sep 2013
Publication
The effect of irregular polygonal grain size and random grain boundary on hydrogen diffusion in polycrystalline nickel is investigated. Hydrogen diffusion behavior in micropolycrystalline nickel is compared with that in nanopolycrystalline nickel through numerical analysis. The two dimensional computational finite element microstructural and nanostructural analyses are based on Fick's law corresponding to heterogeneous polycrystalline model geometry. The heterogeneous polycrystalline model consists of random irregular polygonal grains. These grains are divided into internal grain and grain boundary regions the size of which is determined from the grain size. The computational analysis results show that hydrogen diffusion in nanostructural irregular polycrystalline nickel is higher in magnitude than the microstructural irregular polycrystalline nickel. However models of voids traps and micro and nano clustered grains are yet to be included.
Reducing Emissions in Scotland 2020 Progress Report to the Scottish Parliament
Oct 2020
Publication
Outline
This is the eighth annual Progress Report to the Scottish Parliament required by Scottish Ministers under the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009. It assesses Scotland’s progress in achieving its legislated targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Overall greenhouse gas emissions reduced by 3% in 2017 compared to a 10% fall in 2016. The fall was again led by the power sector due in large part to Scotland’s first full year of coal-free electricity generation. Recent performance in other sectors shows only incremental improvement at best and unless emissions reductions are delivered economy-wide Scotland is at risk of missing its new interim target of a 56% reduction in emissions by 2020.
Key findings
Setting a net-zero greenhouse gas emissions target for 2045 represents a step-change in ambition for Scotland.
The Scottish Parliament’s 2030 target to reduce emissions by 75% will be extremely challenging to meet. It must be backed up by steps to drive meaningful emissions reductions immediately.
Scotland’s Programme for Government 2019-20 alongside other recent policies sent a clear signal that the Scottish Government is taking its more ambitious targets seriously but there is much more to do.
Scotland’s ability to deliver its net-zero target is contingent on action taken in the UK and vice versa.
This is the eighth annual Progress Report to the Scottish Parliament required by Scottish Ministers under the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009. It assesses Scotland’s progress in achieving its legislated targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Overall greenhouse gas emissions reduced by 3% in 2017 compared to a 10% fall in 2016. The fall was again led by the power sector due in large part to Scotland’s first full year of coal-free electricity generation. Recent performance in other sectors shows only incremental improvement at best and unless emissions reductions are delivered economy-wide Scotland is at risk of missing its new interim target of a 56% reduction in emissions by 2020.
Key findings
Setting a net-zero greenhouse gas emissions target for 2045 represents a step-change in ambition for Scotland.
The Scottish Parliament’s 2030 target to reduce emissions by 75% will be extremely challenging to meet. It must be backed up by steps to drive meaningful emissions reductions immediately.
Scotland’s Programme for Government 2019-20 alongside other recent policies sent a clear signal that the Scottish Government is taking its more ambitious targets seriously but there is much more to do.
Scotland’s ability to deliver its net-zero target is contingent on action taken in the UK and vice versa.
Technologies and Infrastructures Underpinning Future CO2 Value Chains: A Comprehensive Review and Comparative Analysis
Feb 2018
Publication
In addition to carbon capture and storage efforts are also being focussed on using captured CO2 both directly as a working fluid and in chemical conversion processes as a key strategy for mitigating climate change and achieving resource efficiency. These processes require large amounts of energy which should come from sustainable and ideally renewable sources. A strong value chain is required to support the production of valuable products from CO2 . A value chain is a network of technologies and infrastructures (such as conversion transportation storage) along with its associated activities (such as sourcing raw materials processing logistics inventory management waste management) required to convert low-value resources to high-value products and energy services and deliver them to customers. A CO2 value chain involves production of CO2 (involving capture and purification) technologies that convert CO2 and other materials into valuable products sourcing of low-carbon energy to drive all of the transformation processes required to convert CO2 to products (including production of hydrogen syngas methane etc.) transport of energy and materials to where they are needed managing inventory levels of resources and delivering the products to customers all in order to create value (economic environmental social etc.).
Technologies underpinning future CO2 value chains were examined. CO2 conversion technologies such as urea production Sabatier synthesis Fischer-Tropsch synthesis hydrogenation to methanol dry reforming hydrogenation to formic acid and electrochemical reduction were assessed and compared based on key performance indicators such as: CAPEX OPEX electricity consumption TRL product price net CO2 consumption etc. Technologies for transport and storage of key resources are also discussed. This work lays the foundation for a comprehensive whole-system value chain analysis modelling and optimisation.
Technologies underpinning future CO2 value chains were examined. CO2 conversion technologies such as urea production Sabatier synthesis Fischer-Tropsch synthesis hydrogenation to methanol dry reforming hydrogenation to formic acid and electrochemical reduction were assessed and compared based on key performance indicators such as: CAPEX OPEX electricity consumption TRL product price net CO2 consumption etc. Technologies for transport and storage of key resources are also discussed. This work lays the foundation for a comprehensive whole-system value chain analysis modelling and optimisation.
Pyrolysis-catalytic Steam Reforming of Agricultural Biomass Wastes and Biomass Components for Production of Hydrogen/syngas
Oct 2018
Publication
The pyrolysis-catalytic steam reforming of six agricultural biomass waste samples as well as the three main components of biomass was investigated in a two stage fixed bed reactor. Pyrolysis of the biomass took place in the first stage followed by catalytic steam reforming of the evolved pyrolysis gases in the second stage catalytic reactor. The waste biomass samples were rice husk coconut shell sugarcane bagasse palm kernel shell cotton stalk and wheat straw and the biomass components were cellulose hemicellulose (xylan) and lignin. The catalyst used for steam reforming was a 10 wt.% nickel-based alumina catalyst (NiAl2O3). In addition the thermal decomposition characteristics of the biomass wastes and biomass components were also determined using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The TGA results showed distinct peaks for the individual biomass components which were also evident in the biomass waste samples reflecting the existence of the main biomass components in the biomass wastes. The results for the two-stage pyrolysis-catalytic steam reforming showed that introduction of steam and catalyst into the pyrolysis-catalytic steam reforming process significantly increased gas yield and syngas production notably hydrogen. For instance hydrogen composition increased from 6.62 to 25.35 mmol g 1 by introducing steam and catalyst into the pyrolysis-catalytic steam reforming of palm kernel shell. Lignin produced the most hydrogen compared to cellulose and hemicellulose at 25.25 mmol g 1. The highest residual char production was observed with lignin which produced about 45 wt.% char more than twice that of cellulose and hemicellulose.
Decarbonising City Bus Networks in Ireland with Renewable Hydrogen
Dec 2020
Publication
This paper presents techno-economic modelling results of a nationwide hydrogen fuel supply chain (HFSC) that includes renewable hydrogen production transportation and dispensing systems for fuel cell electric buses (FCEBs) in Ireland. Hydrogen is generated by electrolysers located at each existing Irish wind farm using curtailed or available wind electricity. Additional electricity is supplied by on-site photovoltaic (PV) arrays and stored using lithium-ion batteries. At each wind farm sizing of the electrolyser PV array and battery is optimised system design to obtain the minimum levelised cost of hydrogen (LCOH). Results show the average electrolyser capacity factor is 64% after the integration of wind farm-based electrolysers with PV arrays and batteries. A location-allocation algorithm in a geographic information system (GIS) environment optimises the distributed hydrogen supply chain from each wind farm to a hypothetical hydrogen refuelling station in the nearest city. Results show that hydrogen produced transported and dispensed using this system can meet the entire current bus fuel demand for all the studied cities at a potential LCOH of 5–10 €/kg by using available wind electricity. At this LCOH the future operational cost of FCEBs in Belfast Cork and Dublin can be competitive with public buses fuelled by diesel especially under carbon taxes more reflective of the environmental impact of fossil fuels.
ISO 19880-1, Hydrogen Fueling Station and Vehicle Interface Safety Technical Report
Oct 2015
Publication
Hydrogen Infrastructures are currently being built up to support the initial commercialization of the fuel cell vehicle by multiple automakers. Three primary markets are presently coordinating a large build up of hydrogen stations: Japan; USA; and Europe to support this. Hydrogen Fuelling Station General Safety and Performance Considerations are important to establish before a wide scale infrastructure is established.
This document introduces the ISO Technical Report 19880-1 and summarizes main elements of the proposed standard. Note: this ICHS paper is based on the draft TR 19880 and is subject to change when the document is published in 2015. International Standards Organisation (ISO) Technical Committee (TC) 197 Working Group (WG) 24 has been tasked with the preparation of the ISO standard 19880-1 to define the minimum requirements considered applicable worldwide for the hydrogen and electrical safety of hydrogen stations. This report includes safety considerations for hydrogen station equipment and components control systems and operation. The following systems are covered specifically in the document as shown in Figure 1:
This document introduces the ISO Technical Report 19880-1 and summarizes main elements of the proposed standard. Note: this ICHS paper is based on the draft TR 19880 and is subject to change when the document is published in 2015. International Standards Organisation (ISO) Technical Committee (TC) 197 Working Group (WG) 24 has been tasked with the preparation of the ISO standard 19880-1 to define the minimum requirements considered applicable worldwide for the hydrogen and electrical safety of hydrogen stations. This report includes safety considerations for hydrogen station equipment and components control systems and operation. The following systems are covered specifically in the document as shown in Figure 1:
- H2 production / supply delivery system
- Compression
- Gaseous hydrogen buffer storage;
- Pre-cooling device;
- Gaseous hydrogen dispensers.
- Hydrogen Fuelling Vehicle Interface
Promotion Effect of Proton-conducting Oxide BaZr0.1Ce0.7Y0.2O3−δ on the Catalytic Activity of Ni Towards Ammonia Synthesis from Hydrogen and Nitrogen
Aug 2018
Publication
In this report for the first time it has been observed that proton-conducting oxide BaZr0.1Ce0.7Y0.2O3−δ (BZCY) has significant promotion effect on the catalytic activity of Ni towards ammonia synthesis from hydrogen and nitrogen. Renewable hydrogen can be used for ammonia synthesis to save CO2 emission. By investigating the operating parameters of the reaction the optimal conditions for this catalyst were identified. It was found that at 620 °C with a total flow rate of 200 mL min−1 and a H2/N2 mol ratio of 3 an activity of approximately 250 μmol g−1 h−1 can be achieved. This is ten times larger than that for the unpromoted Ni catalyst under the same conditions although the stability of both catalysts in the presence of steam was not good. The specific activity of Ni supported on proton-conducting oxide BZCY is approximately 72 times higher than that of Ni supported on non-proton conductor MgO-CeO2. These promotion effects were suspected to be due to the proton conducting nature of the support. Therefore it is proposed that the use of proton conducting support materials with highly active ammonia synthesis catalysts such as Ru and Fe will provide improved activity of at lower temperatures.
Hazards of Liquid Hydrogen: Position paper
Jan 2010
Publication
In the long term the key to the development of a hydrogen economy is a full infrastructure to support it which include means for the delivery and storage of hydrogen at the point of use eg at hydrogen refuelling stations for vehicles. As an interim measure to allow the development of refuelling stations and rapid implementation of hydrogen distribution to them liquid hydrogen is considered the most efficient and cost effective means for transport and storage.
The Health and Safety Executive have commissioned the Health and Safety Laboratory to identify and address issues relating to bulk liquid hydrogen transport and storage and update/develop guidance for such facilities. This position paper the first part of the project assesses the features of the transport and storage aspects of the refuelling stations that are now being constructed in the UK compares them to existing guidance highlights gaps in the regulatory regime and identifies outstanding safety issues. The findings together with the results of experiments to improve our understanding of the behaviour of liquid hydrogen will inform the development of the guidance for refuelling facilities
link to Report
The Health and Safety Executive have commissioned the Health and Safety Laboratory to identify and address issues relating to bulk liquid hydrogen transport and storage and update/develop guidance for such facilities. This position paper the first part of the project assesses the features of the transport and storage aspects of the refuelling stations that are now being constructed in the UK compares them to existing guidance highlights gaps in the regulatory regime and identifies outstanding safety issues. The findings together with the results of experiments to improve our understanding of the behaviour of liquid hydrogen will inform the development of the guidance for refuelling facilities
link to Report
Releases of Unignited Liquid Hydrogen
Jan 2014
Publication
If the hydrogen economy is to progress more hydrogen fuelling stations are required. In the short term in the absence of a hydrogen distribution network these fuelling stations will have to be supplied by liquid hydrogen road tanker. Such a development will increase the number of tanker offloading operations significantly and these may need to be performed in close proximity to the general public.<br/>The aim of this work is to identify and address hazards relating to the storage and transport of bulk liquid hydrogen (LH2) that are associated with hydrogen refuelling stations located in urban environments. Experimental results will inform the wider hydrogen community and contribute to the development of more robust modelling tools. The results will also help to update and develop guidance for codes and standards.<br/>The first phase of the project was to develop an experimental and modelling strategy for the issues associated with liquid hydrogen spills; this was documented in HSL report XS/10/06[1].<br/>The second phase of the project was to produce a position paper on the hazards of liquid hydrogen which was published in 2009 XS/09/72[2]. This was also published as a HSE research report RR769 in 2010[3].<br/>This report details experiments performed to investigate spills of liquid hydrogen at a rate of 60 litres per minute. Measurements were made on unignited releases which included concentration of hydrogen in air thermal gradient in the concrete substrate liquid pool formation and temperatures within the pool. Computational modelling of the unignited releases has been undertaken at HSL and reported in MSU/12/01 [4]. Ignited releases of hydrogen have also been performed as part of this project; the results and findings from this work are reported in XS/11/77[5].
Pressure Effects of an Ignited Release from Onboard Storage in a Garage with a Single Vent
Sep 2017
Publication
This work is driven by the need to understand the hazards resulting from the rapid ignited release of hydrogen from onboard storage tanks through a thermally activated pressure relief device (TPRD) inside a garage-like enclosure with low natural ventilation i.e. the consequences of a jet fire which has been immediately ignited. The resultant overpressure is of particular interest. Previous work [1] focused on an unignited release in a garage with minimum ventilation. This initial work demonstrated that high flow rates of unignited hydrogen through a thermally activated pressure relief device (TPRD) in ventilated enclosures with low air change per hour can generate overpressures above the limit of 10- 15 kPa which a typical civil structure like a garage could withstand. This is due to the pressure peaking phenomenon. Both numerical and phenomenological models were developed for an unignited release and this has been recently validated experimentally [2]. However it could be expected that the majority of unexpected releases through a TPRD may be ignited; leading to even greater overpressures and to date whilst there has been some work on fires in enclosures the pressure peaking phenomenon for an ignited release has yet to be studied or compared with that for an equivalent unignited release. A numerical model for ignited releases in enclosures has been developed and computational fluid dynamics has then been used to examine the pressure dynamics of an ignited hydrogen release in a real scale garage. The scenario considered involves a high mass flow rate release from an onboard hydrogen storage tank at 700 bar through a 3.34 mm diameter orifice representing the TPRD in a small garage with a single vent equivalent in area to small window. It is shown that whilst this vent size garage volume and TPRD configuration may be considered “safe” from overpressures in the event of an unignited release the overpressure resulting from an ignited release is two orders of magnitude greater and would destroy the structure. Whilst further investigation is needed the results clearly indicate the presence of a highly dangerous situation which should be accounted for in regulations codes and standards. The hazard relates to the volume of hydrogen released in a given timeframe thus the application of this work extends beyond TPRDs and is relevant where there is a rapid ignited release of hydrogen in an enclosure with limited ventilation.
CCS Deployment at Dispersed Industrial Sites: Element Energy for the Department for Business Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS)
Aug 2020
Publication
This report identifies and assesses a range of high-level deployment options for industrial carbon capture usage and storage (CCUS) technology located in non-clustered ‘dispersed’ sites that are isolated from potential carbon dioxide transport infrastructure in the UK.
It provides:
It provides:
- an identification of the challenges and barriers to CCUS deployment specifically at these dispersed sites
- an appraisal of the range of high-level options for CCUS deployment and the risks associated with each challenge
- an assessment of the most promising options based on their cost risk and emission reduction potential
- BEIS commissioned Element Energy to produce the report.
The Decarbonisation of Heat
Mar 2020
Publication
This paper proposes that whilst the exact pathway to decarbonising heat in the UK is not yet clear there are a range of actions that could be taken in the next ten years to shift heat onto the right route to meet our 2050 net zero obligation. We already possess many of the skills and technologies required but there are a number of significant barriers preventing a spontaneous movement towards low carbon heat on the scale required – a starting impulse is needed.<br/><br/>Energy efficiency and low carbon heating have the potential to radically improve the quality of life of not just the poorest in our society but all residents of the United Kingdom. With the right approach the decarbonisation of heat can improve health outcomes for millions create new jobs in manufacturing and construction reduce air pollution in our cities and reduce the burden on our health service. This in addition to leading the world in mitigating the climate emergency.
Egypt’s Low Carbon Hydrogen Development Prospects
Nov 2021
Publication
Egypt has one of the largest economies in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and several of its industries are large sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. As part of its contribution to mitigate GHG emissions within the framework of the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change Egypt is focusing on the development of an ambitious renewable energy programme.
Some of Egypt’s main industries are big consumers of hydrogen which is produced locally using indigenous natural gas without abatement of the CO2 emissions resulting from this production process. In the long-term the production and consumption of this unabated hydrogen known as grey hydrogen could become a serious challenge for Egypt’s exports of manufactured products. Thus the Egyptian government is planning to develop low carbon hydrogen alternatives and has set up an inter-ministerial committee to prepare a national hydrogen strategy for Egypt.
This paper explores the prospects for low carbon hydrogen (blue and green hydrogen) developments in Egypt focusing on the potential replacement of Egypt’s large domestic production of grey hydrogen with cleaner low carbon hydrogen alternatives.
The research paper can be found on their website
Some of Egypt’s main industries are big consumers of hydrogen which is produced locally using indigenous natural gas without abatement of the CO2 emissions resulting from this production process. In the long-term the production and consumption of this unabated hydrogen known as grey hydrogen could become a serious challenge for Egypt’s exports of manufactured products. Thus the Egyptian government is planning to develop low carbon hydrogen alternatives and has set up an inter-ministerial committee to prepare a national hydrogen strategy for Egypt.
This paper explores the prospects for low carbon hydrogen (blue and green hydrogen) developments in Egypt focusing on the potential replacement of Egypt’s large domestic production of grey hydrogen with cleaner low carbon hydrogen alternatives.
The research paper can be found on their website
Safety Issues of the Liquefaction, Storage and Transportation of Liquid Hydrogen
Sep 2013
Publication
The objectives of the IDEALHY project which receives funding from the European Union’s 7th Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) for the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative under grant agreement No. 278177 are to design a novel process that will significantly increase the efficiency of hydrogen liquefaction and be capable of delivering liquid hydrogen at a rate that is an order of magnitude greater than current plants. The liquid hydrogen could then be delivered to refueling stations in road tankers. As part of the project the safety management of the new large scale process and the transportation of liquid hydrogen by road tanker into urban areas are being considered. Effective safety management requires that the hazards are identified and well understood. This paper describes the scope of the safety work within IDEALHY and presents the output of the work completed so far. Initially a review of available experimental data on the hazards posed by releases of liquid hydrogen was undertaken which identified that generally there is a dearth of data relevant to liquid hydrogen releases. Subsequently HAZIDs have been completed for the new liquefaction process storage of liquid hydrogen and its transportation by road. This included a review of incidents relevant to these activities. The principal causes of the incidents have been analysed. Finally the remaining safety work for the IDEALHY project is outlined.
Flame Characteristics of Ignited under-expanded Cryogenic Hydrogen Jets
Sep 2021
Publication
The anticipated upscaling of hydrogen energy applications will involve the storage and transport of hydrogen in a cryogenic state. Understanding the potential hazard arising from small leaks in pressurized storage and transport systems is needed to assist safety analysis and development of mitigation measures. The current knowledge of the ignited pressurized cryogenic hydrogen jet flame is limited. Large eddy simulation (LES) with detailed hydrogen chemistry is applied for the reacting flow. The effects of ignition locations are considered and the initial development of the transient flame kernel from the ignition hot spots is analysed. The flame structures namely side flames and envelop flames are observed in the study which are due to the complex interactions between turbulence fuel-air mixing at cryogenic temperature and chemical reactions.
Carbon Capture and Storage Could Clear a Path to the UK's Carbon Reduction Targets: An ETI Technology Programme Highlight Report
Sep 2014
Publication
Capturing and sealing away carbon dioxide released from industrial processes and electricity generation is acknowledged internationally to be potentially a winning intervention in the battle against climate change. The collected technologies that make up Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) could remove more than 90% of the carbon emissions from energy intensive industries and electricity production. In power generation CCS not only provides low-carbon output but it also preserves capacity in fossil fuel-fired plant to respond to shifts in demand. This is a near-unique combination that could mitigate the different shortcomings of harnessing the wind the sun or nuclear fission.<br/>CCS could clear a path to the UK’s carbon reduction targets; secure its energy supplies; and reduce the cost of those achievements. With CCS in play a low-carbon future with secure energy supplies becomes affordable. However without our research has found that the costs of meeting the UK’s lowcarbon targets could double to £60bn a year by 2050 at today’s prices.<br/>However CCS has to be honed technically and commercially before it can become a reality. ETI supported by its partners has made important progress and continues to do so.
Establishing a Regional Hydrogen Economy: Accelerating the Carbon Transition in South Yorkshire, UK
May 2019
Publication
The establishment of a strong hydrogen economy nationally and locally is a very real opportunity and one that is rapidly becoming within reach.<br/>This report presents a vision for the role that hydrogen could play specifically in South Yorkshire (UK) to help meet carbon reduction targets and contribute to the health and economic prosperity of the region.<br/>It also highlights five themes as levers of growth and explores potential actions and collaborations as well as a list of ambitions for future hydrogen projects. Hydrogen can be used in transport industry and heating. Synergies need exploring for example the by-product of oxygen from hydrogen production can be used by industry. Aggregating opportunities is important in developing a hydrogen economy.<br/>The report concludes with a call to action to build momentum for the South Yorkshire hydrogen economy and accelerate the drive to net zero emissions particularly in the most challenging sectors.<br/>This South Yorkshire specific report supports our global thought piece Establishing a Hydrogen Economy: The future of energy 2035
Hydrogen - A Pipeline to the Future
Sep 2020
Publication
Scotland’s Achievements and Ambitions for Clean Hydrogen - a joint webinar between the Scottish Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association and the Pipeline Industries Guild (Scottish branch).
Nigel Holmes. CEO Scottish Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Association provides an update on Scotland’s ambitions backed up by progress in key areas. This will show the potential for hydrogen at scale to support the delivery of policy targets highlighting areas of key strengths for Scotland.
You will also hear about the need to build up scale for hydrogen production and supply in tandem with hydrogen pipeline and distribution networks in order to meet demand for low carbon energy and achieve key milestones on the pathway to Net Zero by 2045.
Nigel Holmes. CEO Scottish Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Association provides an update on Scotland’s ambitions backed up by progress in key areas. This will show the potential for hydrogen at scale to support the delivery of policy targets highlighting areas of key strengths for Scotland.
You will also hear about the need to build up scale for hydrogen production and supply in tandem with hydrogen pipeline and distribution networks in order to meet demand for low carbon energy and achieve key milestones on the pathway to Net Zero by 2045.
Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production by Biomimetic Indium Sulfide Using Mimosa Pudica Leaves as Template
Jan 2019
Publication
Biomimetic sulfur-deficient indium sulfide (In2.77S4) was synthesized by a template-assisted hydrothermal method using leaves of Mimosa pudica as a template for the first time. The effect of this template in modifying the morphology of the semiconductor particles was determined by physicochemical characterization revealing an increase in surface area decrease in microsphere size and pore size and an increase in pore volume density in samples synthesized with the template. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis showed the presence of organic sulfur (Ssingle bondO/Ssingle bondC/Ssingle bondH) and sulfur oxide species (single bondSO2 SO32− SO42−) at the surface of the indium sulfide in samples synthesized with the template. Biomimetic indium sulfide also showed significant amounts of Fe introduced as a contaminant present on the Mimosa pudica leaves. The presence of these sulfur and iron species favors the photocatalytic activity for hydrogen production by their acting as a sacrificial reagent and promoting water oxidation on the surface of the templated particles respectively. The photocatalytic hydrogen production rates over optimally-prepared biomimetic indium sulfide and indium sulfide synthesized without the organic template were 73 and 22 μmol g−1 respectively indicating an improvement by a factor of three in the templated sample.
Meeting Net Zero with Decarbonised Gas
Aug 2019
Publication
Although the UK has done a great job of decarbonising electricity generation to get to net zero we need to tackle harder-to-decarbonise sectors like heat transport and industry. Decarbonised gas – biogases hydrogen and the deployment of carbon capture usage and storage (CCUS) – can make our manufacturing more sustainable minimise disruption to families and deliver negative emissions.
Decarbonisation of Heat in Great Britain
Oct 2021
Publication
This study was conducted for a group of 15 clients in the public and private sectors interested in potential pathways for decarbonising residential heating and the impact of these pathways on the energy system. The ambition for all new heating installations to be low carbon from 2035 is essential to meeting the net zero target in 2050 and our study found that electricity demand for home heating is set to quadruple by 2050 as part of the shift away from gas-fired boilers.
The key findings from the study include:
The key findings from the study include:
- Phasing out natural gas boiler installations by 2035 is crucial for eliminating CO2 from home heating; delaying to 2040 could leave us with ¼ of today’s home heat emissions in 2050
- Achieving deployment of 600k heat pumps per year by 2028 will require policy intervention both to lower costs and to inform and protect consumers Almost £40bn could be saved in cumulative system costs by 2050 through adoption of more efficient and flexible electric heating technologies like networked heat pumps and storage
- Electricity demand from heating could quadruple by 2050 to over 100TWh per year almost a third of Great Britain’s current total annual electricity demand Using hydrogen for a share of heating could lower peak power demand although producing most of this hydrogen from electrolysis would raise overall power demand.
Hy4Heat Progress Report
Jan 2021
Publication
Hy4Heat’s mission is to establish if it is technically possible safe and convenient to replace natural gas (methane) with hydrogen in residential and commercial buildings and gas appliances. This will enable the government to determine whether to proceed to a community trial.
There is growing international consensus that hydrogen will be essential to successfully tackling climate change. So BEIS is working to develop hydrogen as a strategic decarbonised energy carrier for the UK which will be an essential element of the UK’s efforts to transform and decarbonise our energy system in line with our legally binding 2050 net zero commitment. Hydrogen can be used across multiple end-use sectors including industry transport heat and power. BEIS is looking to support and develop low carbon hydrogen production methods which will position hydrogen as a highly effective decarbonisation option particularly in hard-to electrify sectors and processes.
At the end of 2017 BEIS appointed Arup to be the programme manager for the Hy4Heat programme. Arup partnered with technical and industry specialists: Kiwa Gastec Progressive Energy Embers and Yo Energy and together the team oversees the programme and technical management of all the work packages. For the past three years Hy4Heat has been exploring whether replacing natural gas (methane) with hydrogen for domestic heating and cooking is feasible and could be part of a plausible potential pathway to help meet heat decarbonisation targets. To do this the programme has been seeking to provide the technical performance usability and safety evidence to demonstrate whether hydrogen can be used for heat in buildings.
This report and any attachment is freely available on the Hy4Heat website here. The report can also be downloaded directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.
There is growing international consensus that hydrogen will be essential to successfully tackling climate change. So BEIS is working to develop hydrogen as a strategic decarbonised energy carrier for the UK which will be an essential element of the UK’s efforts to transform and decarbonise our energy system in line with our legally binding 2050 net zero commitment. Hydrogen can be used across multiple end-use sectors including industry transport heat and power. BEIS is looking to support and develop low carbon hydrogen production methods which will position hydrogen as a highly effective decarbonisation option particularly in hard-to electrify sectors and processes.
At the end of 2017 BEIS appointed Arup to be the programme manager for the Hy4Heat programme. Arup partnered with technical and industry specialists: Kiwa Gastec Progressive Energy Embers and Yo Energy and together the team oversees the programme and technical management of all the work packages. For the past three years Hy4Heat has been exploring whether replacing natural gas (methane) with hydrogen for domestic heating and cooking is feasible and could be part of a plausible potential pathway to help meet heat decarbonisation targets. To do this the programme has been seeking to provide the technical performance usability and safety evidence to demonstrate whether hydrogen can be used for heat in buildings.
This report and any attachment is freely available on the Hy4Heat website here. The report can also be downloaded directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.
Kinetics Study and Modelling of Steam Methane Reforming Process Over a NiO/Al2O3 Catalyst in an Adiabatic Packed Bed Reactor
Dec 2016
Publication
Kinetic rate data for steam methane reforming (SMR) coupled with water gas shift (WGS) over an 18 wt. % NiO/α-Al2O3 catalyst are presented in the temperature range of 300–700 °C at 1 bar. The experiments were performed in a plug flow reactor under the conditions of diffusion limitations and away from the equilibrium conditions. The kinetic model was implemented in a one-dimensional heterogeneous mathematical model of catalytic packed bed reactor developed on gPROMS model builder 4.1.0®. The mathematical model of SMR process was simulated and the model was validated by comparing the results with the experimental values. The simulation results were in excellent agreement with the experimental results. The effect of various operating parameters such as temperature pressure and steam to carbon ratio on fuel and water conversion (%) H2 yield (wt. % of CH4) and H2 purity was modelled and compared with the equilibrium values.
HyNet North West: Delivering Clean Growth
Jan 2018
Publication
HyNet North West is a significant clean growth opportunity for the UK. It is a low cost deliverable project which meets the major challenges of reducing carbon emissions from industry domestic heat and transport.<br/>HyNet North West is based on the production of hydrogen from natural gas. It includes the development of a new hydrogen pipeline; and the creation of the UK’s first carbon capture and storage (CCS) infrastructure. CCS is a vital technology to achieve the widespread emissions savings needed to meet the 2050 carbon reduction targets.<br/>Accelerating the development and deployment of hydrogen technologies and CCS through HyNet North West positions the UK strongly for skills export in a global low carbon economy.<br/>The North West is ideally placed to lead HyNet. The region has a history of bold innovation and today clean energy initiatives are thriving. On a practical level the concentration of industry existing technical skill base and unique geology means the region offers an unparalleled opportunity for a project of this kind.<br/>The new infrastructure built by HyNet is readily extendable beyond the initial project and provides a replicable model for similar programmes across the UK<br/>Contains Vision statement 2 leaflets a presentation and a summary report which are all stored as supplements.
A Novel Self-Assembly Strategy for the Fabrication of Nano-Hybrid Satellite Materials with Plasmonically Enhanced Catalytic Activity
Jun 2021
Publication
The generation of hydrogen from water using light is currently one of the most promising alternative energy sources for humankind but faces significant barriers for large-scale applications due to the low efficiency of existing photo-catalysts. In this work we propose a new route to fabricate nano-hybrid materials able to deliver enhanced photo-catalytic hydrogen evolution combining within the same nanostructure a plasmonic antenna nanoparticle and semiconductor quantum dots (QDs). For each stage of our fabrication process we probed the chemical composition of the materials with nanometric spatial resolution allowing us to demonstrate that the final product is composed of a silver nanoparticle (AgNP) plasmonic core surrounded by satellite Pt decorated CdS QDs (CdS@Pt) separated by a spacer layer of SiO2 with well-controlled thickness. This new type of photoactive nanomaterial is capable of generating hydrogen when irradiated with visible light displaying efficiencies 300% higher than the constituting photo-active components. This work may open new avenues for the development of cleaner and more efficient energy sources based on photo-activated hydrogen generation.
H2FC SUPERGEN- Opportunities for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies to Contribute to Clean Growth in the UK
May 2020
Publication
Hydrogen is expected to have an important role in decarbonising several parts of the UK energy system. This white paper examines the opportunities for hydrogen and fuel cell technologies (H2FC) to contribute to clean growth in the UK.
We assess the strength of the sector by surveying 196 companies working in the area and using other key metrics (for example publication citations and patents). There is already a nascent fuel cell industry working at the cutting edge of global innovation. The UK has an opportunity to grow this industry and to develop an export-focused hydrogen industry over the next few decades. However this will require public nurturing and support. We make a series of recommendations that include:
We assess the strength of the sector by surveying 196 companies working in the area and using other key metrics (for example publication citations and patents). There is already a nascent fuel cell industry working at the cutting edge of global innovation. The UK has an opportunity to grow this industry and to develop an export-focused hydrogen industry over the next few decades. However this will require public nurturing and support. We make a series of recommendations that include:
- Creating separate national fuel cell and hydrogen strategies. These should take UK energy needs capabilities and export opportunities into account. There is a need to coordinate public R&D support and to manage the consequences if European funding and collaboration opportunities become unavailable due to Brexit.
- Creating a public–private “Hydrogen Partnership” to accelerate a shift to hydrogen energy systems in the UK and to stimulate opportunities for businesses.
- Putting in place infrastructure to underpin nascent fuel cell and hydrogen markets including a national refuelling station network and a green hydrogen standard scheme.
- Study what would constitute critical mass in the hydrogen and fuel cell sectors in terms of industry and academic capacity and the skills and knowledge base and consider how critical mass could be achieved most efficiently.
- Consider creating a “Hydrogen Institute” and an “Electrochemical Centre” to coordinate and underpin national innovation over the next decade.
On the Response of a Lean-premixed Hydrogen Combustor to Acoustic and Dissipative-dispersive Entropy Waves
May 2019
Publication
Combustion of hydrogen or hydrogen containing blends in gas turbines and industrial combustors can activate thermoacoustic combustion instabilities. Convective instabilities are an important and yet less investigated class of combustion instability that are caused by the so called “entropy waves”. As a major shortcoming the partial decay of these convective-diffusive waves in the post-flame region of combustors is still largely unexplored. This paper therefore presents an investigation of the annihilating effects due to hydrodynamics heat transfer and flow stretch upon the nozzle response. The classical compact analysis is first extended to include the decay of entropy waves and heat transfer from the nozzle. Amplitudes and phase shifts of the responding acoustical waves are then calculated for subcritical and supercritical nozzles subject to acoustic and entropic forcing. A relation for the stretch of entropy wave in the nozzle is subsequently developed. It is shown that heat transfer and hydrodynamic decay can impart considerable effects on the entropic response of the nozzle. It is further shown that the flow stretching effects are strongly frequency dependent. The results indicate that dissipation and dispersion of entropy waves can significantly influence their conversion to sound and therefore should be included in the entropy wave models.
Energy Innovation Needs Assessment: Hydrogen & Fuel Cells
Nov 2019
Publication
The Energy Innovation Needs Assessment (EINA) aims to identify the key innovation needs across the UK’s energy system to inform the prioritisation of public sector investment in low-carbon innovation. Using an analytical methodology developed by the Department for Business Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS) the EINA takes a system level approach and values innovations in a technology in terms of the system-level benefits a technology innovation provides. This whole system modelling in line with BEIS’s EINA methodology was delivered by the Energy Systems Catapult (ESC) using the Energy System Modelling Environment (ESMETM) as the primary modelling tool.
To support the overall prioritisation of innovation activity the EINA process analyses key technologies in more detail. These technologies are grouped together into sub-themes according to the primary role they fulfil in the energy system. For key technologies within a sub-theme innovations and business opportunities are identified. The main findings at the technology level are summarised in sub-theme reports. An overview report will combine the findings from each sub-theme to provide a broad system-level perspective and prioritisation.
This EINA analysis is based on a combination of desk research by a consortium of economic and engineering consultants and stakeholder engagement. The prioritisation of innovation and business opportunities presented is informed by a workshop organised for each sub-theme assembling key stakeholders from the academic community industry and government.
This report was commissioned prior to advice being received from the CCC on meeting a net zero target and reflects priorities to meet the previous 80% target in 2050. The newly legislated net zero target is not expected to change the set of innovation priorities rather it will make them all more valuable overall. Further work is required to assess detailed implications.
To support the overall prioritisation of innovation activity the EINA process analyses key technologies in more detail. These technologies are grouped together into sub-themes according to the primary role they fulfil in the energy system. For key technologies within a sub-theme innovations and business opportunities are identified. The main findings at the technology level are summarised in sub-theme reports. An overview report will combine the findings from each sub-theme to provide a broad system-level perspective and prioritisation.
This EINA analysis is based on a combination of desk research by a consortium of economic and engineering consultants and stakeholder engagement. The prioritisation of innovation and business opportunities presented is informed by a workshop organised for each sub-theme assembling key stakeholders from the academic community industry and government.
This report was commissioned prior to advice being received from the CCC on meeting a net zero target and reflects priorities to meet the previous 80% target in 2050. The newly legislated net zero target is not expected to change the set of innovation priorities rather it will make them all more valuable overall. Further work is required to assess detailed implications.
Calibration of Hydrogen Coriolis Flow Meters Using Nitrogen and Air and Investigation of the Influence of Temperature on Measurement Accuracy
Feb 2021
Publication
The performance of four Coriolis flow meters designed for use in hydrogen refuelling stations was evaluated with air and nitrogen by three members of the MetroHyVe JRP consortium; NEL METAS and CESAME EXADEBIT.<br/>A wide range of conditions were tested overall with gas flow rates ranging from (0.05–2) kg/min and pressures ranging from (20–86) bar. The majority of tests were conducted at nominal pressures of either 20 bar or 40 bar in order to match the density of hydrogen at 350 bar and 20 °C or 700 bar and −40 °C. For the conditions tested pressure did not have a noticeable influence on meter performance.<br/>When the flow meters were operated at ambient temperatures and within the manufacturer's recommended flow rate ranges errors were generally within ±1%. Errors within ±0.5% were achievable for the medium to high flow rates.<br/>The influence of temperature on meter performance was also studied with testing under both stable and transient conditions and temperatures as low as −40 °C.<br/>When the tested flow meters were allowed sufficient time to reach thermal equilibrium with the incoming gas temperature effects were limited. The magnitude and spread of errors increased but errors within ±2% were achievable at moderate to high flow rates. Conversely errors as high as 15% were observed in tests where logging began before temperatures stabilised and there was a large difference in temperature between the flow meter and the incoming gas.<br/>One of the flow meters tested with nitrogen was later installed in a hydrogen refuelling station and tested against the METAS Hydrogen Field Test Standard (HFTS). Under these conditions errors ranged from 0.47% to 0.91%. Testing with nitrogen at the same flow rates yielded errors of −0.61% to −0.82%.
Scotland’s Energy Strategy Position Statement
Mar 2021
Publication
This policy statement provides:
An overview of our key priorities for the short to medium-term and then moves on to look at how we have continued to abide by the three key principles set out in Scotland's Energy Strategy published in 2017 in our policy design and delivery. Those principles are:
Separate sections have been included on Maximising Scotland's International Potential in the lead up to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) and on Consumers to reflect the challenging economic climate we currently face and to highlight the action being taken by the Scottish Government to ensure the cost of our energy transition does not fall unequally.
This statement provides an overview of our approach to supporting the energy sector in the lead up to COP26 and as we embark on a green economic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic. It summarises how our recent policy publications such as our Hydrogen Policy Statement Local Energy Policy Statement and Offshore Wind Policy Statement collectively support the delivery of the Climate Change Plan update along with the future findings from our currently live consultations including our draft Heat in Buildings Strategy our Call for Evidence on the future development of the Low Carbon Infrastructure Transition Programme (LCITP) and our consultation on Scottish skills requirements for energy efficiency.
While this statement sets out our comprehensive programme of work across the energy sector the current Energy Strategy (2017) remains in place until any further Energy Strategy refresh is adopted by Ministers. It is at the stage of refreshing Scotland's Energy Strategy where we will embark on a series of stakeholder engagements and carry out the relevant impact assessments to inform our thinking on future policy development.
An overview of our key priorities for the short to medium-term and then moves on to look at how we have continued to abide by the three key principles set out in Scotland's Energy Strategy published in 2017 in our policy design and delivery. Those principles are:
- a whole-system view;
- an inclusive energy transition; and
- a smarter local energy model.
- Skills and Jobs;
- Supporting Local Communities:
- Investment; and
- Innovation
Separate sections have been included on Maximising Scotland's International Potential in the lead up to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) and on Consumers to reflect the challenging economic climate we currently face and to highlight the action being taken by the Scottish Government to ensure the cost of our energy transition does not fall unequally.
This statement provides an overview of our approach to supporting the energy sector in the lead up to COP26 and as we embark on a green economic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic. It summarises how our recent policy publications such as our Hydrogen Policy Statement Local Energy Policy Statement and Offshore Wind Policy Statement collectively support the delivery of the Climate Change Plan update along with the future findings from our currently live consultations including our draft Heat in Buildings Strategy our Call for Evidence on the future development of the Low Carbon Infrastructure Transition Programme (LCITP) and our consultation on Scottish skills requirements for energy efficiency.
While this statement sets out our comprehensive programme of work across the energy sector the current Energy Strategy (2017) remains in place until any further Energy Strategy refresh is adopted by Ministers. It is at the stage of refreshing Scotland's Energy Strategy where we will embark on a series of stakeholder engagements and carry out the relevant impact assessments to inform our thinking on future policy development.
Patterned Membranes for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Working at Low Humidity
Jun 2021
Publication
High performing proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) that can operate at low relative humidity is a continuing technical challenge for PEMFC developers. In this work micro-patterned membranes are demonstrated at the cathode side by solution casting techniques using stainless steel moulds with laser-imposed periodic surface structures (LIPSS). Three types of patterns lotus lines and sharklet are investigated for their influence on the PEMFC power performance at varying humidity conditions. The experimental results show that the cathode electrolyte pattern in all cases enhances the fuel cell power performance at 100% relative humidity (RH). However only the sharklet pattern exhibits a significant improvement at 25% RH where a peak power density of 450 mW cm−2 is recorded compared with 150 mW cm−2 of the conventional flat membrane. The improvements are explored based on high-frequency resistance electrochemically active surface area (ECSA) and hydrogen crossover by in situ membrane electrode assembly (MEA) testing.
Hydrogen Economy and the Built Environment
Nov 2011
Publication
The hydrogen economy is a proposition for the distribution of energy by using hydrogen in order to potentially eliminate carbon emissions and end our reliance on fossil fuels. Some futuristic forecasters view the hydrogen economy as the ultimate carbon free economy. Hydrogen operated vehicles are on trial in many countries. The use of hydrogen as an energy source for buildings is in its infancy but research and development is evolving. Hydrogen is generally fed into devices called fuel cells to produce energy. A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity and heat from a fuel (often hydrogen) and oxygen. Fuel cells have a number of advantages over other technologies for power generation. When fed with clean hydrogen they have the potential to use less fuel than competing technologies and to emit no pollution (the only bi-product being water). However hydrogen has to be produced and stored in the first instance. It is possible to generate hydrogen from renewable sources but the technology is still immature and the transformation is wasteful. The creation of a clean hydrogen production and distribution economy at a global level is very costly. Proponents of a world-scale hydrogen economy argue that hydrogen can be an environmentally cleaner source of energy to end-users particularly in transportation applications without release of pollutants (such as particulate matter) or greenhouse gases at the point of end use. Critics of a hydrogen economy argue that for many planned applications of hydrogen direct use of electricity or production of liquid synthetic fuels from locally-produced hydrogen and CO2 (e.g. methanol economy) might accomplish many of the same net goals of a hydrogen economy while requiring only a small fraction of the investment in new infrastructure. This paper reviews the hydrogen economy how it is produced and distributed. It then investigates the different types of fuel cells and identifies which types are relevant to the built environment both in residential and nonresidential sections. It concludes by examining what are the future plans in terms of implementing fuel cells in the built environment and discussing some of the needs of built environment sector.
Link to Document
Link to Document
Development of a Model Evaluation Protocol for CFD Analysis of Hydrogen Safety Issues – The SUSANA Project
Oct 2015
Publication
The “SUpport to SAfety aNAlysis of Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies (SUSANA)” project aims to support stakeholders using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for safety engineering design and assessment of FCH systems and infrastructure through the development of a model evaluation protocol. The protocol covers all aspects of safety assessment modelling using CFD from release through dispersion to combustion (self-ignition fires deflagrations detonations and Deflagration to Detonation Transition - DDT) and not only aims to enable users to evaluate models but to inform them of the state of the art and best practices in numerical modelling. The paper gives an overview of the SUSANA project including the main stages of the model evaluation protocol and some results from the on-going benchmarking activities.
Environmentally-Assisted Cracking of Type 316L Austenitic Stainless Steel in Low Pressure Hydrogen Steam Environments
Aug 2019
Publication
A low pressure superheated hydrogen-steam system has been used to accelerate the oxidation kinetics while keeping the electrochemical conditions similar to those of the primary water in a pressurized water reactor. The initiation has been investigated using a Constant Extension Rate Tensile (CERT) test. Tests were performed on flat tapered specimens made from Type 316L austenitic stainless steel with strain rates of 2×10-6 and 2×10-8 ms-1 at room temperature and at an elevated temperature of 350 °C. R = 1/6 was chosen as a more oxidizing environment and R = 6 was selected as a more reducing environment where the parameter R represents the ratio between the oxygen partial pressure at the Ni/NiO transition and the oxygen partial pressure. Different exposures (1 day and 5 days) prior to loading were investigated post-test evaluation by scanning electron microscopy.
Performing While Transforming: The Role of Transmission Companies in the Energy Transition
Jun 2020
Publication
As the world prepares to exit from the COVID-19 crisis the pace of the global power revolution is expected to accelerate. A new publication from the World Energy Council in collaboration with PwC underscores the imperative for electricity grid owners and operators to fundamentally transform themselves to secure a role in a more integrated flexible and smarter electricity system in the energy transition to a low carbon future.
“Performing While Transforming: The Role of Transmission Companies in the Energy Transition” is based on in-depth interviews with CEOs and senior leaders from 37 transmission companies representing 35 countries and over 4 million kilometres – near global coverage - of the transmission network. While their roles will evolve transmission companies will remain at the heart of the electricity grid and need to balance the challenges of keeping the lights on while transforming themselves for the future.
The publication explores the various challenges affecting how transmission companies prepare and re-think their operations and business models and leverages the insights from interviewees to highlight four recommendations for transmission companies to consider in their journey:
“Performing While Transforming: The Role of Transmission Companies in the Energy Transition” is based on in-depth interviews with CEOs and senior leaders from 37 transmission companies representing 35 countries and over 4 million kilometres – near global coverage - of the transmission network. While their roles will evolve transmission companies will remain at the heart of the electricity grid and need to balance the challenges of keeping the lights on while transforming themselves for the future.
The publication explores the various challenges affecting how transmission companies prepare and re-think their operations and business models and leverages the insights from interviewees to highlight four recommendations for transmission companies to consider in their journey:
- Focus on the future through enhanced forecasting and scenario planning
- Shape the ecosystem by collaborating with new actors and enhancing interconnectivity
- Embrace automation and technology to optimise processes and ensure digital delivery
- Transform organisation to attract new talent and maintain social licence with consumers
Accelerating Innovation Towards Net Zero Emissions
Apr 2019
Publication
This report Accelerating innovation towards net zero commissioned by the Aldersgate Group and co-authored with Vivid Economics identifies out how the government can achieve a net zero target cost-effectively in a way that enables the UK to capture competitive advantages.
The unique contribution of this report is to identify the lessons from successful and more rapid historical innovations and apply them to the challenge of meeting net zero emissions in the UK.
Achieving net zero emissions is likely to require accelerated innovation across research demonstration and early deployment of low carbon technologies. Researchers analysed five international case studies of relatively rapid innovations to draw key lessons for government on the conditions needed to move from a typical multi-decadal cycle to one that will deliver net zero emissions by mid-Century.
The case studies include:
Six key actions for government policy to accelerate low carbon innovation in the UK:
The unique contribution of this report is to identify the lessons from successful and more rapid historical innovations and apply them to the challenge of meeting net zero emissions in the UK.
Achieving net zero emissions is likely to require accelerated innovation across research demonstration and early deployment of low carbon technologies. Researchers analysed five international case studies of relatively rapid innovations to draw key lessons for government on the conditions needed to move from a typical multi-decadal cycle to one that will deliver net zero emissions by mid-Century.
The case studies include:
- The deployment of the ATM network and cash cards across the UK
- Roll out of a gas network and central heating in the UK
- The development of wind turbines in Denmark and then the UK
- Moving from late-stage adoption of steel technology in South Korea to being the world leading exporter; and
- The slower than expected development of commercial-scale CCUS to date across the world.
Six key actions for government policy to accelerate low carbon innovation in the UK:
- Increase ambition in demonstrating complex and high capital cost technologies and systems.
- Create new markets to catalyse early deployment and move towards widespread commercialisation.
- Use concurrent innovations such as digital technologies to improve system efficiency and make new products more accessible and attractive to customers.
- Use existing or new organisations (cross-industry associations or public-private collaborations) to accelerate innovation in critical areas and coordinate early stage deployment.
- Harness trusted voices to build consumer acceptance through information sharing and rapid responses to concerns.
- Align innovation policy in such a way that it strengthens the UK’s industrial advantages and increases knowledge spillovers between businesses and sectors.
HyNet North West- from Vision to Reality
Jan 2018
Publication
HyNet North West (NW) is an innovative integrated low carbon hydrogen production distribution and carbon capture utilisation and storage (CCUS) project. It provides hydrogen distribution and CCUS infrastructure across Liverpool Manchester and parts of Cheshire in support of the Government’s Clean Growth Strategy (CGS) and achievement of the UK’s emissions reduction targets.<br/>Hydrogen will be produced from natural gas and sent via a new pipeline to a range of industrial sites for injection as a blend into the existing natural gas network and for use as a transport fuel. Resulting carbon dioxide (CO2) will be captured and together with CO2 from local industry which is already available sent by pipeline for storage offshore in the nearby Liverpool Bay gas fields. Key data for the Project are presented in Table ES1.
A Critical Time for UK Energy Policy What Must be Done Now to Deliver the UK’s Future Energy System: A Report for the Council for Science and Technology
Oct 2015
Publication
Time is rapidly running out to make the crucial planning decisions and secure investment to keep the UK on track to deliver a reliable affordable and decarbonised energy system to meet future emissions regulation enshrined in the 2008 Climate Change Act according to a report published today by the Royal Academy of Engineering.
Prepared for the Prime Minister's Council for Science and Technology A critical time for UK energy policy details the actions needed now to create a secure and affordable low carbon energy system for 2030 and beyond.
The study looks at the future evolution of the UK’s energy system in the short to medium term. It considers how the system is expected to develop across a range of possible trajectories identified through modelling and scenarios.
The following actions for government are identified as a matter of urgency:
The report notes that the addition of shale gas or tight oil is unlikely to have a major impact on the evolution of the UK's energy system as we already have secure and diverse supplies of hydrocarbons from multiple sources.
Dr David Clarke FREng who led the group that produced the report says: “Updating the UK energy system to meet the ‘trilemma’ of decarbonisation security and affordability is a massive undertaking. Meeting national targets affordably requires substantial decarbonisation of the electricity system by 2030 through a mix of nuclear power CCS and renewables with gas generation for balancing. Beyond 2030 we must then largely decarbonise heat and transport potentially through electrification but also using other options such as hydrogen and biofuels. We also need to adapt our transmission and distribution networks to become ‘smarter’”.
"Failure to plan the development of the whole energy system carefully will result at best in huge increases in the cost of delivery or at worst a failure to deliver. Substantial investment is needed and current investment capacity is fragile. For example in the last month projects like Carlton’s new Trafford CCGT plant have announced further financing delays and the hoped-for investment by Drax in the White Rose CCS demonstrator has been withdrawn. The UK has also dropped four places to 11th in EY’s renewable energy country attractiveness index.”
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Prepared for the Prime Minister's Council for Science and Technology A critical time for UK energy policy details the actions needed now to create a secure and affordable low carbon energy system for 2030 and beyond.
The study looks at the future evolution of the UK’s energy system in the short to medium term. It considers how the system is expected to develop across a range of possible trajectories identified through modelling and scenarios.
The following actions for government are identified as a matter of urgency:
- enable local or regional whole-system large scale pilot projects to establish real-world examples of how the future system will work. These must move beyond current single technology demonstrators and include all aspects of the energy systems along with consumer behaviour and financial mechanisms
- drive forward new capacity in the three main low carbon electricity generating technologies: nuclear carbon capture and storage (CCS) and offshore wind
- develop policies to accelerate demand reduction especially in domestic heating and introduce smarter demand management
- clarify and stabilise market mechanisms and incentives in order to give industry the confidence to invest.
The report notes that the addition of shale gas or tight oil is unlikely to have a major impact on the evolution of the UK's energy system as we already have secure and diverse supplies of hydrocarbons from multiple sources.
Dr David Clarke FREng who led the group that produced the report says: “Updating the UK energy system to meet the ‘trilemma’ of decarbonisation security and affordability is a massive undertaking. Meeting national targets affordably requires substantial decarbonisation of the electricity system by 2030 through a mix of nuclear power CCS and renewables with gas generation for balancing. Beyond 2030 we must then largely decarbonise heat and transport potentially through electrification but also using other options such as hydrogen and biofuels. We also need to adapt our transmission and distribution networks to become ‘smarter’”.
"Failure to plan the development of the whole energy system carefully will result at best in huge increases in the cost of delivery or at worst a failure to deliver. Substantial investment is needed and current investment capacity is fragile. For example in the last month projects like Carlton’s new Trafford CCGT plant have announced further financing delays and the hoped-for investment by Drax in the White Rose CCS demonstrator has been withdrawn. The UK has also dropped four places to 11th in EY’s renewable energy country attractiveness index.”
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Thermal Radiation Properties of Large Hydrogen Leaks from Gas Distribution Networks
Sep 2019
Publication
Determination of the behaviour of hydrogen when leaking from pipework on gas distribution assets is essential in assessing the comparative risk associated with using pure hydrogen in place of natural gas in existing assets. Experimental work considering the behaviour of gaseous hydrogen when released in large volumes from gas distribution pipework at pressures of up to 7 barg through holes of up to 200mm in diameter in both buried and unburied scenarios is currently underway. The present paper presents and briefly discusses the results from a set of ignited 20mm diameter releases of hydrogen at pressures up to 7 barg vertically upwards from a pipe in an open excavation. Gaseous releases which find a direct route to atmosphere have the potential to create significant volumes of flammable gas and subsequently significant fires in the case of ignition. It is important to understand both the dispersion distances and thermal hazard field to be able to understand the comparative risk posed when compared to natural gas releases in similar situations. Results of current work completed to date are presented alongside comparisons with known properties of natural gas releases and the potential implications to the comparative risk of hydrogen network operation. The work has been conducted at the DNV GL Spadeadam Testing and Research Centre UK as part of the UK Gas Distribution Networks and Ofgem National Innovation Competition funded H21 project.
Optimal Design and Operation of Integrated Wind-hydrogen-electricity Networks for Decarbonising the Domestic Transport Sector in Great Britain
Nov 2015
Publication
This paper presents the optimal design and operation of integrated wind-hydrogen-electricity networks using the general mixed integer linear programming energy network model STeMES (Samsatli and Samsatli 2015). The network comprises: wind turbines; electrolysers fuel cells compressors and expanders; pressurised vessels and underground storage for hydrogen storage; hydrogen pipelines and electricity overhead/underground transmission lines; and fuelling stations and distribution pipelines.<br/>The spatial distribution and temporal variability of energy demands and wind availability were considered in detail in the model. The suitable sites for wind turbines were identified using GIS by applying a total of 10 technical and environmental constraints (buffer distances from urban areas rivers roads airports woodland and so on) and used to determine the maximum number of new wind turbines that can be installed in each zone.<br/>The objective is the minimisation of the total cost of the network subject to satisfying all of the demands of the domestic transport sector in Great Britain. The model simultaneously determines the optimal number size and location of each technology whether to transmit the energy as electricity or hydrogen the structure of the transmission network the hourly operation of each technology and so on. The cost of distribution was estimated from the number of fuelling stations and length of the distribution pipelines which were determined from the demand density at the 1 km level.<br/>Results indicate that all of Britain's domestic transport demand can be met by on-shore wind through appropriately designed and operated hydrogen-electricity networks. Within the set of technologies considered the optimal solution is: to build a hydrogen pipeline network in the south of England and Wales; to supply the Midlands and Greater London with hydrogen from the pipeline network alone; to use Humbly Grove underground storage for seasonal storage and pressurised vessels at different locations for hourly balancing as well as seasonal storage; for Northern Wales Northern England and Scotland to be self-sufficient generating and storing all of the hydrogen locally. These results may change with the inclusion of more technologies such as electricity storage and electric vehicles.
Ammonia for Power
Sep 2018
Publication
A potential enabler of a low carbon economy is the energy vector hydrogen. However issues associated with hydrogen storage and distribution are currently a barrier for its implementation. Hence other indirect storage media such as ammonia and methanol are currently being considered. Of these ammonia is a carbon free carrier which offers high energy density; higher than compressed air. Hence it is proposed that ammonia with its established transportation network and high flexibility could provide a practical next generation system for energy transportation storage and use for power generation. Therefore this review highlights previous influential studies and ongoing research to use this chemical as a viable energy vector for power applications emphasizing the challenges that each of the reviewed technologies faces before implementation and commercial deployment is achieved at a larger scale. The review covers technologies such as ammonia in cycles either for power or CO2 removal fuel cells reciprocating engines gas turbines and propulsion technologies with emphasis on the challenges of using the molecule and current understanding of the fundamental combustion patterns of ammonia blends.
Uncovering the True Cost of Hydrogen Production Routes Using Life Cycle Monetisation
Oct 2020
Publication
Hydrogen has been identified as a potential energy vector to decarbonise the transport and chemical sectors and achieve global greenhouse gas reduction targets. Despite ongoing efforts hydrogen technologies are often assessed focusing on their global warming potential while overlooking other impacts or at most including additional metrics that are not easily interpretable. Herein a wide range of alternative technologies have been assessed to determine the total cost of hydrogen production by coupling life-cycle assessments with an economic evaluation of the environmental externalities of production. By including monetised values of environmental impacts on human health ecosystem quality and resources on top of the levelised cost of hydrogen production an estimation of the “real” total cost of hydrogen was obtained to transparently rank the alternative technologies. The study herein covers steam methane reforming (SMR) coal and biomass gasification methane pyrolysis and electrolysis from renewable and nuclear technologies. Monetised externalities are found to represent a significant percentage of the total cost ultimately altering the standard ranking of technologies. SMR coupled with carbon capture and storage emerges as the cheapest option followed by methane pyrolysis and water electrolysis from wind and nuclear. The obtained results identify the “real” ranges for the cost of hydrogen compared to SMR (business as usual) by including environmental externalities thereby helping to pinpoint critical barriers for emerging and competing technologies to SMR.
Effect of the Time Dependent Loading of Type IV Cylinders Using a Multi-scalemodel
Sep 2019
Publication
The current requirements for composite cylinders are still based on an arbitrary approach derived from the behaviour of metal structures that the designed burst pressure should be at least 2.5 times the maximum in-service pressure. This could lead to an over-designed composite cylinder for which the weight saving would be less than optimum. Moreover predicting the lifetime of composite cylinders is a challenging task due to their anisotropic characteristics. A federal research institute in Germany (BAM) has proposed a minimum load-cycle requirement that mitigates this issue by using a MonteCarlo analysis of the burst test results. To enrich this study more experiments are required however they are normally limited by the necessity of long duration testing times (loading rate and number of cylinders) and the design (stacking sequence of the composite layer). A multi-scale model incorporating the micromechanical behaviour of composite structures has been developed at Mines ParisTech. The model has shown similar behaviour to that of composite cylinders under different loading rates. This indicates that the model could assist the Monte-Carlo analysis study. An evaluation of the multi-scale model therefore has been carried out to determine its limitations in predicting lifetimes of composite cylinders. The evaluation starts with the comparison of burst pressures with type IV composite cylinders under different loading rates. A μCT-Scan of a type IV cylinder has been carried out at the University of Southampton. The produced images were analysed using the Fast-Fourier Transform (FFT) technique to determine the configuration of the composite layers which is required by the model. Finally the time dependent effect studied by using the multi scale model has been described. In the long-term this study can be used to conduct a parametric study for creating more efficient design of type IV cylinders.
A Probabilistic Framework for the Techno-economic Assessment of Smart Energy Hubs for Electric Vehicle Charging
Apr 2022
Publication
Smart energy hubs (Smart Hubs) equipped with Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) charging photovoltaic (PV) energy generation and hydrogen storage capabilities are an emerging technology with potential to alleviate the impact of electric vehicles (EV) on the electricity grid. Their operation however is characterised by intermittent PV energy generation as well as uncertainties in EV traffic and driver preference. These uncertainties when combined with the need to maximise their financial return while guaranteeing driver satisfaction yields a challenging decision-making problem. This paper presents a novel Monte-Carlo-based modelling and computational framework for simulating the operation of Smart Hubs — providing a means for a holistic assessment of their technical and financial viability. The framework utilises a compact and representative mathematical model accounting for power losses PV module degradation variability in EV uptake price inflation driver preference and diversity in charge points and EVs. It provides a comprehensive approach for dealing with uncertainties and dependencies in EV data while being built on an energy management algorithm that maximises revenue generation ensures driver satisfaction and preserves battery life. The energy management problem is formulated as a mixed-integer linear programming problem constituting a business case that includes an adequate V2G reward model for drivers. To demonstrate its applicability the framework was used to assess the financial viability of a fleet management site for various caps on vehicle stay at the site. From the assessment controlled charging was found to be more financially rewarding in all cases yielding between 1.7% and 3.1% more revenue than uncontrolled charging. The self-consumption of the site was found to be nearly 100% due mainly to local load shifting and dispatchable hydrogen generation. V2G injection was however negligible — suggesting its unattractiveness for sites that do not participate in the demand side response market. Overall the numerical results obtained validate the applicability of the proposed framework as a decision-support tool in the sustainable design and operation of Smart Hubs for EV charging.
Technical Feasibility of Low Carbon Heating in Domestic Buildings
Dec 2020
Publication
Scotland’s Climate Change Plan set an ambition for emissions from buildings to be near zero by 2050 and targets 35% of domestic and 70% of non-domestic buildings’ heat to be supplied using low carbon technologies by 2032. The Climate Change (Emissions Reduction Targets) (Scotland) Act 2019 set a new target for emissions to be net zero by 2045 with interim targets of 75% by 2030 and 90% by 2040. The update to the Climate Change Plan will be published at the end of 2020 to reflect these new targets. The Energy Efficient Scotland programme launched in May 2018 sets out a wide range of measures to promote low carbon heating alongside energy efficiency improvements in Scotland’s buildings. Meeting these targets will require almost all households in Scotland to change the way they heat their homes. It is therefore imperative to advance our understanding of the suitability of the available low carbon heating options across Scotland’s building stock.<br/><br/>The aim of this work is to assess the suitability of low carbon heating technologies in residential buildings in Scotland. The outputs generated through this work will form a key part of the evidence base on low carbon heat which the Scottish Government will use to further develop and strengthen Scotland’s low carbon heat policy in line with the increased level of ambition of achieving Net Zero by 2045.
Vented Hydrogen-air Deflagrations in Low Strength Equipment and Buildings
Sep 2013
Publication
This paper aims to improve prediction capability of the vent sizing correlation presented in the form of functional dependence of the dimensionless deflagration overpressure on the turbulent Bradley number similar to our previous studies. The correlation is essentially upgraded based on recent advancements in understanding and modelling of combustion phenomena relevant to hydrogen-air vented deflagrations and unique large-scale tests carried out by different research groups. The focus is on hydrogen-air deflagrations in low-strength equipment and buildings when the reduced pressure is accepted to be below 0.1 MPa. The combustion phenomena accounted for by the correlation include: turbulence generated by the flame front itself; leading point mechanism stemming from the preferential diffusion of hydrogen in air in stretched flames; growth of the fractal area of the turbulent flame surface; initial turbulence in the flammable mixture; as well as effects of enclosure aspect ratio and presence of obstacles. The correlation is validated against the widest range of experimental conditions available to date (76 experimental points). The validation covers a wide range of test conditions: different shape enclosures of volume up to 120 m3; initially quiescent and turbulent hydrogen-air mixtures; hydrogen concentration in air from 6% to 30% by volume; ignition source location at enclosure centre near and far from a vent; empty enclosures and enclosures with obstacles.
Business Models for Low Carbon Hydrogen Production: A Report for BEIS
Aug 2020
Publication
Low carbon hydrogen could have a significant role to play in meeting the UK’s Net Zero target: the Committee on Climate Change (CCC) estimates that up to 270TWh of low carbon hydrogen could be needed in its ‘Further Ambition’ scenario. However at present there is no large-scale production of low carbon hydrogen in the UK not least as it is more costly than most high carbon alternatives. For hydrogen to be the viable option envisaged by the CCC projects may need to be deployed from the 2020s.<br/>BEIS has commissioned Frontier Economics to develop business models to support low carbon hydrogen production. This report builds on the earlier Carbon Capture Usage and Storage (CCUS) business models consultation2 and develops business models for BEIS to consider further. This report is a milestone in BEIS’ longer term process of developing hydrogen business models. It forms a part of BEIS’ wider research into a range of decarbonisation options across the economy.<br/>Further analysis will be required before a final decision is made.
Hydrogen Venting Under Variable Flow Conditions
Sep 2011
Publication
Safety distances for hydrogen plumes are currently derived using models developed for hydrocarbon releases. It is well known that hydrogen behaves in a significantly different manner to that of hydrocarbons when released to atmosphere. There are two main aspects involved with the development of safety distances for credible hydrogen releases; the intensity of the thermal radiation from such a plume should it be ignited and the distance downwind from the release point to the point where a flammable mixture with air no longer exists. A number of distinct areas of venting behaviour were investigated; Thermal radiation from ignited plumes from vertical open ended vent pipes Far field radiation measurements for direct comparison with models Thermal radiation from ignited plumes from vertical vent pipes terminating in a T-piece Thermal radiation measurements from ignited hydrogen with a 45 vent termination Hydrogen concentration measurements with a T-piece.
Hydrogen Energy
Feb 2007
Publication
The problem of anthropogenically driven climate change and its inextricable link to our global society’s present and future energy needs are arguably the greatest challenge facing our planet. Hydrogen is now widely regarded as one key element of a potential energy solution for the twenty-first century capable of assisting in issues of environmental emissions sustainability and energy security. Hydrogen has the potential to provide for energy in transportation distributed heat and power generation and energy storage systems with little or no impact on the environment both locally and globally. However any transition from a carbon-based (fossil fuel) energy system to a hydrogen-based economy involves significant scientific technological and socio-economic barriers. This brief report aims to outline the basis of the growing worldwide interest in hydrogen energy and examines some of the important issues relating to the future development of hydrogen as an energy vector.
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Sensitive Intervention Points to Achieve Net-zero Emissions (Sixth Carbon Budget Policy Advisory Group)
Dec 2020
Publication
The group concluded that the transition to Net Zero can and will occur and will leave a positive legacy for future generations. They examined the UK as a complex adaptive system and identified recommendations for accelerating progress and reducing the risks of failure. The Group recognised an opportunity for Sensitive Intervention Points (SIPs) coinciding with these recommendations pointing to opportunities to accelerate a transition towards Net Zero by exploiting socio-economic tipping points.
These included:
These included:
- Deepening public engagement through investments to support measures to lower ‘thresholds’ to behavioural change such as energy efficiency or dietary alternatives. This can form part of a public engagement strategy for Net Zero that educates the public involves people in decision-making and provides trusted information at key decision points
- Delivering social justice via a clear long-term vision for specific regions coupled with mechanisms that reward the private sector for building industries in otherwise deprived areas starting now
- Government leading on Net Zero by requiring any company meeting with ministers and secretaries of state to have a plan to reach net zero emissions
- Leveraging global dynamics by introducing a border carbon adjustment and consider forming bilateral and multilateral preferential trading arrangements for environmental goods and services
- Penalising emissions by committing in the UK’s NDC to sequester 10% of CO2 emissions generated by fossil fuels and industry by 2030
- Increasing business ambition by identifying businesses that shape industries – celebrate and elevate them
- Accelerating technology via Pathfinder cities that can deliver comprehensive steps towards Net Zero and demonstrate the interactions required across complex systems of low-carbon electricity heat and transport
- Redirecting capital flows by introducing Net zero aligned and transparent accounting and auditing
- Harnessing legal avenues by legislating all regulators to regard the Paris Agreement Sixth Carbon Budget and 2050 Net Zero target in their duties.
Net Zero Public Dialogue
Mar 2021
Publication
This research project brought together members of the public from across the UK to participate in online workshops to explore:
- public understanding and perceptions of what reaching climate targets in the UK will mean for them individually and for society as a whole
- public attitudes and preferences towards the role that individual behaviour change should have in reaching net zero
- public perceptions of the easiest and toughest areas of change to help reach net zero
- public views on how they would prefer to engage with net zero policies and relevant initiatives that they feel could support the delivery of net zero
UKERC Research Atlas Landscape – Fuel Cells
Dec 2013
Publication
This UKERC Research Atlas Landscape provides an overview of the competencies and publicly funded activities in fuel cell research development and demonstration (RD&D) in the UK. It covers the main funding streams research providers infrastructure networks and UK participation in international activities.
Energy Innovation Needs Assessment: Carbon Capture Usage & Storage
Nov 2019
Publication
The Energy Innovation Needs Assessment (EINA) aims to identify the key innovation needs across the UK’s energy system to inform the prioritisation of public sector investment in low-carbon innovation. Using an analytical methodology developed by the Department for Business Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS) the EINA takes a system level approach and values innovations in a technology in terms of the system-level benefits a technology innovation provides. This whole system modelling in line with BEIS’s EINA methodology was delivered by the Energy Systems Catapult (ESC) using the Energy System Modelling Environment (ESMETM) as the primary modelling tool.
To support the overall prioritisation of innovation activity the EINA process analyses key technologies in more detail. These technologies are grouped together into sub-themes according to the primary role they fulfil in the energy system. For key technologies within a sub-theme innovations and business opportunities are identified. The main findings at the technology level are summarised in sub-theme reports. An overview report will combine the findings from each sub-theme to provide a broad system-level perspective and prioritisation.
This EINA analysis is based on a combination of desk research by a consortium of economic and engineering consultants and stakeholder engagement. The prioritisation of innovation and business opportunities presented is informed by a workshop organised for each sub-theme assembling key stakeholders from the academic community industry and government.
This report was commissioned prior to advice being received from the CCC on meeting a net zero target and reflects priorities to meet the previous 80% target in 2050. The newly legislated net zero target is not expected to change the set of innovation priorities rather it will make them all more valuable overall. Further work is required to assess detailed implications.
To support the overall prioritisation of innovation activity the EINA process analyses key technologies in more detail. These technologies are grouped together into sub-themes according to the primary role they fulfil in the energy system. For key technologies within a sub-theme innovations and business opportunities are identified. The main findings at the technology level are summarised in sub-theme reports. An overview report will combine the findings from each sub-theme to provide a broad system-level perspective and prioritisation.
This EINA analysis is based on a combination of desk research by a consortium of economic and engineering consultants and stakeholder engagement. The prioritisation of innovation and business opportunities presented is informed by a workshop organised for each sub-theme assembling key stakeholders from the academic community industry and government.
This report was commissioned prior to advice being received from the CCC on meeting a net zero target and reflects priorities to meet the previous 80% target in 2050. The newly legislated net zero target is not expected to change the set of innovation priorities rather it will make them all more valuable overall. Further work is required to assess detailed implications.
The Impact of Disruptive Powertrain Technologies on Energy Consumption and Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Heavy-duty Vehicles
Jan 2020
Publication
Minimising tailpipe emissions and the decarbonisation of transport in a cost effective way remains a major objective for policymakers and vehicle manufacturers. Current trends are rapidly evolving but appear to be moving towards solutions in which vehicles which are increasingly electrified. As a result we will see a greater linkage between the wider energy system and the transportation sector resulting in a more complex and mutual dependency. At the same time major investments into technological innovation across both sectors are yielding rapid advancements into on-board energy storage and more compact/lightweight on-board electricity generators. In the absence of sufficient technical data on such technology holistic evaluations of the future transportation sector and its energy sources have not considered the impact of a new generation of innovation in propulsion technologies. In this paper the potential impact of a number of novel powertrain technologies are evaluated and presented. The analysis considers heavy duty vehicles with conventional reciprocating engines powered by diesel and hydrogen hybrid and battery electric vehicles and vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells and freepiston engine generators (FPEGs). The benefits are compared for each technology to meet the expectations of representative medium and heavy-duty vehicle drivers. Analysis is presented in terms of vehicle type vehicle duty cycle fuel economy greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions impact on the vehicle etc.. The work shows that the underpinning energy vector and its primary energy source are the most significant factor for reducing primary energy consumption and net CO2 emissions. Indeed while an HGV with a BEV powertrain offers no direct tailpipe emissions it produces significantly worse lifecycle CO2 emissions than a conventional diesel powertrain. Even with a de-carbonised electricity system (100 g CO2/kWh) CO2 emissions are similar to a conventional Diesel fuelled HGV. For the HGV sector range is key to operator acceptability of new powertrain technologies. This analysis has shown that cumulative benefits of improved electrical powertrains on-board storage efficiency improvements and vehicle design in 2025 and 2035 mean that hydrogen and electric fuelled vehicles can be competitive on gravimetric and volumetric density. Overall the work demonstrates that presently there is no common powertrain solution appropriate for all vehicle types but how subtle improvements at a vehicle component level can have significant impact on the design choices for the wider energy system.
Scottish Offshore Wind to Green Hydrogen Opportunity Assessment
Dec 2020
Publication
Initial assessment of Scotland’s opportunity to produce green hydrogen from offshore wind
Summary of Key Findings
Summary of Key Findings
- Scotland has an abundant offshore wind resource that has the potential to be a vital component in our net zero transition. If used to produce green hydrogen offshore wind can help abate the emissions of historically challenging sectors such as heating transport and industry.
- The production of green hydrogen from offshore wind can help overcome Scotland’s grid constraints and unlock a massive clean power generation resource creating a clean fuel for Scottish industry and households and a highly valuable commodity to supply rapidly growing UK and European markets.
- The primary export markets for Scottish green hydrogen are expected to be in Northern Europe (Germany Netherlands & Belgium). Strong competition to supply these markets is expected to come from green hydrogen produced from solar energy in Southern Europe and North Africa.
- Falling wind and electrolyser costs will enable green hydrogen production to be cost-competitive in the key transport and heat sectors by 2032. Strategic investment in hydrogen transportation and storage is essential to unlocking the economic opportunity for Scotland.
- Xodus’ analysis supports a long-term outlook of LCoH falling towards £2/kg with an estimated reference cost of £2.3 /kg in 2032 for hydrogen delivered to shore.
- Scotland has extensive port and pipeline infrastructure that can be repurposed for hydrogen export to the rest of UK and to Europe. Pipelines from the ‘90s are optimal for this purpose as they are likely to retain acceptable mechanical integrity and have a metallurgy better suited to hydrogen service. A more detailed assessment of export options should be performed to provide a firm foundation for early commercial green hydrogen projects.
- There is considerable hydrogen supply chain overlap with elements of parallel sectors most notably the oil and gas offshore wind and subsea engineering sectors. Scotland already has a mature hydrocarbon supply chain which is engaged in supporting green hydrogen. However a steady pipeline of early projects supported by a clear financeable route to market will be needed to secure this supply chain capability through to widescale commercial deployment.
- There are gaps in the Scottish supply chain in the areas of design manufacture and maintenance of hydrogen production storage and transportation systems. Support including apprenticeships will be needed to develop indigenous skills and capabilities in these areas.
- The development of green hydrogen from offshore wind has the potential to create high value jobs a significant proportion which are likely to be in remote rural/coastal communities located close to offshore wind resources. These can serve as an avenue for workers to redeploy and develop skills learned from oil and gas in line with Just Transition principles.
Plasmonic Nickel Nanoparticles Decorated on to LaFeO3 Photocathode for Enhanced Solar Hydrogen Generation
Nov 2018
Publication
Plasmonic Ni nanoparticles were incorporated into LaFeO3 photocathode (LFO-Ni) to excite the surface plasmon resonances (SPR) for enhanced light harvesting for enhancing the photoelectrochemical (PEC) hydrogen evolution reaction. The nanostructured LFO photocathode was prepared by spray pyrolysis method and Ni nanoparticles were incorporated on to the photocathode by spin coating technique. The LFO-Ni photocathode demonstrated strong optical absorption and higher current density where the untreated LFO film exhibited a maximum photocurrent of 0.036 mA/cm2 at 0.6 V vs RHE and when incorporating 2.84 mmol Ni nanoparticles the photocurrent density reached a maximum of 0.066 mA/cm2 at 0.6 V vs RHE due to the SPR effect. This subsequently led to enhanced hydrogen production where more than double (2.64 times) the amount of hydrogen was generated compared to the untreated LFO photocathode. Ni nanoparticles were modelled using Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) analysis and the results showed optimal particle size in the range of 70–100 nm for Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) enhancement.
Combustion and Exhaust Emission Characteristics, and In-cylinder Gas Composition, of Hydrogen Enriched Biogas Mixtures in a Diesel Engine
Feb 2017
Publication
This paper presents a study undertaken on a naturally aspirated direct injection diesel engine investigating the combustion and emission characteristics of CH4-CO2 and CH4-CO2 -H2 mixtures. These aspirated gas mixtures were pilot-ignited by diesel fuel while the engine load was varied between 0 and 7 bar IMEP by only adjusting the flow rate of the aspirated mixtures. The in-cylinder gas composition was also investigated when combusting CH4-CO2 and CH4-CO2-H2 mixtures at different engine loads with in cylinder samples collected using two different sampling arrangements. The results showed a longer ignition delay period and lower peak heat release rates when the proportion of CO2 was increased in the aspirated mixture. Exhaust CO2 emissions were observed to be higher for 60 CH4:40CO2 mixture but lower for the 80CH4:20CO2 mixture as compared to diesel fuel only combustion at all engine loads. Both exhaust and in-cylinder NOx levels were observed to decrease when the proportion of CO2 was increased; NOx levels increased when the proportion of H2 was increased in the aspirated mixture. In-cylinder NOx levels were observed to be higher in the region between the sprays as compared to within the spray core attributable to higher gas temperatures reached post ignition in that region.
Hydrogen Effects in Non-ferrous Alloys: Discussion
Jun 2017
Publication
This is a transcript of the discussion session on the effects of hydrogen in the non-ferrous alloys of zirconium and titanium which are anisotropic hydride-forming metals. The four talks focus on the hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms that affect zirconium and titanium components which are respectively used in the nuclear and aerospace industries. Two specific mechanisms are delayed hydride cracking and stress corrosion cracking.
This article is a transcription of the recorded discussion of the session ‘Hydrogen in non-ferrous alloys’ at the Royal Society Discussion Meeting Challenges of Hydrogen in Metals 16–18 January 2017. The text is approved by the contributors. M.P. transcribed the session. M.A.S. assisted in the preparation of the manuscript.
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
This article is a transcription of the recorded discussion of the session ‘Hydrogen in non-ferrous alloys’ at the Royal Society Discussion Meeting Challenges of Hydrogen in Metals 16–18 January 2017. The text is approved by the contributors. M.P. transcribed the session. M.A.S. assisted in the preparation of the manuscript.
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Zero-In on NI-Heat Exploring Pathways Towards Heat Decarbonisation in Northern Ireland
Jul 2020
Publication
Northern Ireland has achieved its 2020 targets in the electricity sector ahead of time with 46.8% of its electricity demand supplied by renewable generators. When it comes to heat the progress is less impressive – 68% of domestic heating is provided by oil and only around 2500 customers use low carbon heat generators in their homes. In addition 22% of consumers live in fuel poverty. Fuel poverty support programmes still propose the replacement of old oil boilers with new models or with gas boilers where a connection to the grid is possible.<br/>Failure of the commercial RHI scheme and the knock-on effect of the closure of the domestic RHI scheme caused significant damage to the industry and to the reputation of low carbon heat technologies leaving NI consumers without any explicit supporting mechanisms for low carbon heat supply. Decreases in carbon emissions from the heat sector are mainly achieved through switching from oil to gas heating. Gas infrastructure is under development in NI and promises to reach 60% of customers by 2022.
Annual Science Review 2018
Mar 2018
Publication
THIS ANNUAL SCIENCE Review showcases the high quality of science evidence and analysis that underpins HSE’s risk-based regulatory regime. To be an effective regulator HSE has to balance its approaches to informing directing advising and enforcing through a variety of activities. For this we need capacity to advance knowledge; to develop and use robust evidence and analysis; to challenge thinking; and to review effectiveness.<br/>In simple terms policy provides the route map to tackling issues. HSE is particularly well placed in terms of the three components of effective policy - “politics” “evidence” and “delivery”. Unlike most regulators and arms-length bodies HSE leads on policy development which draws directly on front line delivery expertise and intelligence; and we are also unusual in having our own world class science and insight capabilities.<br/>The challenge is to ensure we bring these components together to best effect to respond to new risk management and regulatory issues with effective innovative and proportionate approaches.<br/>Many of the articles in this Review relate to new and emerging technologies and the changing world of work and it is important to understand the risks these may pose and how they can be effectively controlled or how they themselves can contribute to improved health and safety in the workplace. Good policy development can support approaches to change that are proportionate relevant persuasive and effective. For example work described in these pages is: to help understand changing workplace exposures; to provide robust evidence to those negotiating alternatives to unduly prescriptive standards; to understand how best to influence duty<br/>holder behaviors in the changing world of work; to inform possible legislative changes to allow different modes of safe gas transmission; to change administrative processes for Appointed Doctors; and to support our position as a model modern regulator by further focusing our inspection activity where it matters most.<br/>The vital interface between HSE science and policy understand how best to influence duty holder behaviors in the changing world of work; to inform possible legislative changes to allow different modes of safe gas transmission; to change administrative processes for Appointed Doctors; and to support our position as a model modern regulator by further focusing our inspection activity where it matters most.<br/>We work well together and it is important we maintain this engagement as a conscious collaboration.
Oxford Energy Podcast – How a Traded Hydrogen Market Might Develop – Lessons from the Natural Gas Industry
Jun 2021
Publication
The appetite for a ‘hydrogen market’ has been growing in the past year or two and is often called a ‘market’ by governments regulators and other energy industry players. The question is what ‘hydrogen market’ are they referring to as there is currently no such market established? In this podcast David Ledesma talks to Patrick Heather Senior Research Fellow at the OIES and discusses how a future traded hydrogen market might develop what the prerequisites would be for the development of a wholesale market and whether there are lessons to be learned from the development of the European natural gas market. The podcast ends up by asking the fundamental question – If the European gas market took 25-30 years to liberalise and develop a liquid traded pricing hub where are we headed with hydrogen? Will we ever see a traded market in hydrogen and what must happen to get there? Patrick is cautiously optimistic in his response!
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
Establishing a Hydrogen Economy: The Future of Energy 2035
May 2019
Publication
The next few decades are expected to be among the most transformative the energy sector has ever seen. Arup envisages a world with a much more diverse range of heating sources and with significantly lower emissions and renewable energy powering transport.<br/>As part of this the establishment of a strong hydrogen economy is a very real opportunity and is within reaching distance. Our report uses the UK as a case study example and explores the challenges and opportunities for hydrogen in the context of the whole energy system.<br/>Read about the progress already being made in using hydrogen for transport and heat. And the need to progress policy and collaboration between government the private sector and other stakeholders to shape future demand change consumer perception and create the strong supply chains needed to allow the hydrogen economy to thrive.
Opportunity and Cost of Green Hydrogen in Kuwait: A Preliminary Assessment
Apr 2021
Publication
On April 7 2021 OIES with and the Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (KFAS) held the annual OIES-KFAS Workshop on Energy Transition Post-Pandemic in the Gulf. During the hydrogen session a paper titled “Opportunity and Cost of Green Hydrogen in Kuwait: A Preliminary Assessment” co-authored by Dr. Manal Shehabi was presented.
Like others states in the GCC Kuwait is seeking to explore hydrogen as part of its energy transition projects. The presentation highlights key technological opportunities for green hydrogen in Kuwait followed by a techno-economic assessments of producing it. Results of utilized hydrogen production model show that for production in 2032 average levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) is $3.23/kg using PEM technology & $4.41/kg using SOEC technology. Results indicate that green hydrogen in Kuwait is more competitive than in other regions but currently not competitive (>$1.5/kg) with oil coal and gas in absence of carbon taxes.
The research paper can be found on their website
Like others states in the GCC Kuwait is seeking to explore hydrogen as part of its energy transition projects. The presentation highlights key technological opportunities for green hydrogen in Kuwait followed by a techno-economic assessments of producing it. Results of utilized hydrogen production model show that for production in 2032 average levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) is $3.23/kg using PEM technology & $4.41/kg using SOEC technology. Results indicate that green hydrogen in Kuwait is more competitive than in other regions but currently not competitive (>$1.5/kg) with oil coal and gas in absence of carbon taxes.
The research paper can be found on their website
Ammonia-hydrogen Combustion in a Swirl Burner with Reduction of NOx Emissions
Sep 2019
Publication
Recently ammonia is being considered for fuelling gas turbines as a new sustainable source. It can undergo thermal cracking producing nitrogen hydrogen and unburned ammonia thus enabling the use of these chemicals most efficiently for combustion purposes. Ammonia being carbon-free may allow the transition towards a hydrogen economy. However one of the main constraints of this fuelling technique is that although the combustion of ammonia produces no CO2 there is a large NOx proportion of emissions using this fuel. In this work cracked ammonia obtained from a modified combustion rig designed at Cardiff University was used to simulate a swirl burner under preheating conditions via heat exchangers. The primary objective of this system is to find new ways for the reduction of NOx emissions by injecting various amounts of ammonia/hydrogen at different mixtures downstream of the primary flame zone. The amount of injected ammonia/hydrogen mixture (X) taken from the thermal cracking system was ranged from 0%-4% (vol %) of the total available fuel in the system while the remaining gas (1.00-X) was then employed as primary fuel into the burner. CHEMKIN- PRO calculations were conducted by employing a novel chemical reaction code developed at Cardiff University to achieve the goal of this paper. The predictions were performed under low pressure and rich conditions with an equivalence ratio ϕ =1.2 in a swirl burner previously characterised at output powers of ~10 kW. Ammonia and hydrogen blends were evaluated from 50% NH3 (vol %) with the remaining gas as hydrogen continuing in steps of 10% (vol %) NH3 increments. Results showed that the minimum unburned ammonia and higher flame temperature were achieved at 60%-40% NH3-H2 when compared to other blends but with high NO emissions. These NO levels were reduced by injecting a small amount of NH3/H2 mixture (X=4 %) downstream the primary zone in a generated circulations promoted by the new design of the burner which affecting the residence time hence reducing the NO emission in the exhaust gas.
The Curious Case of the Conflicting Roles of Hydrogen in Global Energy Scenarios
Oct 2019
Publication
As energy systems transition from fossil-based to low-carbon they face many challenges particularly concerning energy security and flexibility. Hydrogen may help to overcome these challenges with potential as a transport fuel for heating energy storage conversion to electricity and in industry. Despite these opportunities hydrogen has historically had a limited role in influential global energy scenarios. Whilst more recent studies are beginning to include hydrogen the role it plays in different scenarios is extremely inconsistent. In this perspective paper reasons for this inconsistency are explored considering the modelling approach behind the scenario scenario design and data assumptions. We argue that energy systems are becoming increasingly complex and it is within these complexities that new technologies such as hydrogen emerge. Developing a global energy scenario that represents these complexities is challenging and in this paper we provide recommendations to help ensure that emerging technologies such as hydrogen are appropriately represented. These recommendations include: using the right modelling tools whilst knowing the limits of the model; including the right sectors and technologies; having an appropriate level of ambition; and making realistic data assumptions. Above all transparency is essential and global scenarios must do more to make available the modelling methods and data assumptions used.
HyDeploy Report: Keele Information
Jun 2018
Publication
Keele University was chosen as the site for the HyDeploy project as it was seen as the site offered a high degree of control regarding safety functions high availability of operational data and minimal supply chain interfaces given that Keele University is the supplier transporter and distributer of natural gas at the site. The site was offered to the project as a living laboratory in line with the university's ambition to be at the forefront of energy innovation through the Smart Energy Network Demonstrator (SEND). Evidenced within this report is the supporting data that confirms the rationale for selecting Keele University and the necessary data to profile the section of the gas network which hydrogen will be injected into. The gas network at Keele University is segregated via the governor stations which regulate pressure within the network. The section of network which has been chosen for the HyDeploy project is the G3 network which is regulated by the G3 governor.
Investment Frameworks for Development of CCUS in the UK
Jul 2019
Publication
The CCUS Advisory Group (CAG) established in March 2019 is an industry-led group considering the critical challenges facing the development of CCUS market frameworks and providing insight into potential solutions. The CAG brings together experts from across the CCUS industry finance and legal sectors.<br/>The CAG has examined a range of business models focusing on industrial CCUS power production CO? transport and storage and hydrogen production. It has considered how the proposed business models interact in order to minimise issues such as cross-chain risk and has considered issues such as delivery capability. The conclusions of the CAG can be found in this report.
HyDeploy Project - First Project Progress Report
Dec 2017
Publication
The HyDeploy Project seeks to address a key issue for UK customers: how to reduce the carbon they emit in heating their homes. The UK has a world class gas grid delivering heat conveniently and safely to over 83% of homes. Emissions could be reduced by lowering the carbon content of gas through blending with hydrogen. Compared with solutions such as heat pumps this means that customers would not need disruptive and expensive changes in their homes. This Network Innovation Competition (NIC) funded project seeks to establish the level of hydrogen that can be safely blended with natural gas for transport and use in a UK network.
Under its Smart Energy Network Demonstration innovation programme Keele University is establishing its electricity and gas networks as facilities to drive forward innovation in the energy sector. The objective of HyDeploy is to trial natural gas blended with potentially up to 20% volume of hydrogen in a part of the Keele gas network. Before any hydrogen can be blended with natural gas in the network the percentage of hydrogen to be delivered must be approved by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). It must be satisfied that the approved blended gas will be as safe to use as normal gas. Any approval will be given as an exemption to the Gas Safety (Management) Regulations. These regulations ensure the safe use and management of gas through the gas network in the UK. The evidence presented to the HSE comprises critically appraised literature combined with the results from a specifically commissioned experimental and testing programme. Based on engagement with all local customers this includes detailed safety checks on the network appliances and installations at Keele. Subject to approval by the HSE the hydrogen production and grid injection units will be installed and an extensive trial programme of blending will be undertaken. If hydrogen were blended at 20% volume with natural gas across the UK it would save around 6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions every year the equivalent of taking 2.5 million cars off the road.
This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.
Under its Smart Energy Network Demonstration innovation programme Keele University is establishing its electricity and gas networks as facilities to drive forward innovation in the energy sector. The objective of HyDeploy is to trial natural gas blended with potentially up to 20% volume of hydrogen in a part of the Keele gas network. Before any hydrogen can be blended with natural gas in the network the percentage of hydrogen to be delivered must be approved by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). It must be satisfied that the approved blended gas will be as safe to use as normal gas. Any approval will be given as an exemption to the Gas Safety (Management) Regulations. These regulations ensure the safe use and management of gas through the gas network in the UK. The evidence presented to the HSE comprises critically appraised literature combined with the results from a specifically commissioned experimental and testing programme. Based on engagement with all local customers this includes detailed safety checks on the network appliances and installations at Keele. Subject to approval by the HSE the hydrogen production and grid injection units will be installed and an extensive trial programme of blending will be undertaken. If hydrogen were blended at 20% volume with natural gas across the UK it would save around 6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions every year the equivalent of taking 2.5 million cars off the road.
This report and any attachment is freely available on the ENA Smarter Networks Portal here. IGEM Members can download the report and any attachment directly by clicking on the pdf icon above.
Measurement Challenges for Hydrogen Vehicles
Apr 2019
Publication
Uptake of hydrogen vehicles is an ideal solution for countries that face challenging targets for carbon dioxide reduction. The advantage of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles is that they behave in a very similar way to petrol engines yet they do not emit any carbon containing products during operation. The hydrogen industry currently faces the dilemma that they must meet certain measurement requirements (set by European legislation) but cannot do so due to a lack of available methods and standards. This paper outlines the four biggest measurement challenges that are faced by the hydrogen industry including flow metering quality assurance quality control and sampling.
A Temperature Controlled Mechanical Test Facility to Ensure Safe Materials Performance in Hydrogen at 1000 Bar
Sep 2007
Publication
Increasingly car manufacturers are turning to high pressure hydrogen storage for on-board power applications. Many prototypes use costly materials and fabrication methods such as Type 316L austenitic stainless steel and processes such as TIG (GTA) welding. There is a need to move to less expensive options without compromising safety to assist in developing economic vehicles. It is important that the behaviour of new/modified materials and joints (including those fabricated by new technologies) is understood at anticipated service temperatures and hydrogen pressure as the consequences of poor material choice could be severe. The greatest detrimental effect of gaseous hydrogen on the mechanical properties of metallic materials is commonly observed under conditions of dynamic plastic strain. Under such conditions an atomically clean surface is produced where hydrogen molecules will dissociate and penetrate the material. Thus static load test methods with hydrogen charging are not reliable for engineering data generation. To meet the need for dynamically straining material in a pressurised hydrogen environment TWI has developed a facility to load specimens in a high pressure environment for tensile toughness and fatigue testing. The design of this has involved a number of innovative steps. This paper outlines the requirements and the design and construction issues that were encountered when installing a facility which can not only perform tests at up to 1000bar (100MPa) but also for temperatures between –150°C to +85°C.
Guidelines and Recommendations for Indoor Use of Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Systems
Oct 2015
Publication
Deborah Houssin-Agbomson,
Simon Jallais,
Elena Vyazmina,
Guy Dang-Nhu,
Gilles Bernard-Michel,
Mike Kuznetsov,
Vladimir V. Molkov,
Boris Chernyavsky,
Volodymyr V. Shentsov,
Dmitry Makarov,
Randy Dey,
Philip Hooker,
Daniele Baraldi,
Evelyn Weidner,
Daniele Melideo,
Valerio Palmisano,
Alexandros G. Venetsanos,
Jan Der Kinderen and
Béatrice L’Hostis
Hydrogen energy applications often require that systems are used indoors (e.g. industrial trucks for materials handling in a warehouse facility fuel cells located in a room or hydrogen stored and distributed from a gas cabinet). It may also be necessary or desirable to locate some hydrogen system components/equipment inside indoor or outdoor enclosures for security or safety reasons to isolate them from the end-user and the public or from weather conditions.<br/>Using of hydrogen in confined environments requires detailed assessments of hazards and associated risks including potential risk prevention and mitigation features. The release of hydrogen can potentially lead to the accumulation of hydrogen and the formation of a flammable hydrogen-air mixture or can result in jet-fires. Within Hyindoor European Project carried out for the EU Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking safety design guidelines and engineering tools have been developed to prevent and mitigate hazardous consequences of hydrogen release in confined environments. Three main areas are considered: Hydrogen release conditions and accumulation vented deflagrations jet fires and including under-ventilated flame regimes (e.g. extinguishment or oscillating flames and steady burns). Potential RCS recommendations are also identified.
A Comparison of Alternative Fuels for Shipping in Terms of Lifecycle Energy and Cost
Dec 2021
Publication
Decarbonization of the shipping sector is inevitable and can be made by transitioning into low‐ or zero‐carbon marine fuels. This paper reviews 22 potential pathways including conventional Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) marine fuel as a reference case “blue” alternative fuel produced from natural gas and “green” fuels produced from biomass and solar energy. Carbon capture technology (CCS) is installed for fossil fuels (HFO and liquefied natural gas (LNG)). The pathways are compared in terms of quantifiable parameters including (i) fuel mass (ii) fuel volume (iii) life cycle (Well‐To‐ Wake—WTW) energy intensity (iv) WTW cost (v) WTW greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and (vi) non‐GHG emissions estimated from the literature and ASPEN HYSYS modelling. From an energy perspective renewable electricity with battery technology is the most efficient route albeit still impractical for long‐distance shipping due to the low energy density of today’s batteries. The next best is fossil fuels with CCS (assuming 90% removal efficiency) which also happens to be the lowest cost solution although the long‐term storage and utilization of CO2 are still unresolved. Biofuels offer a good compromise in terms of cost availability and technology readiness level (TRL); however the non‐GHG emissions are not eliminated. Hydrogen and ammonia are among the worst in terms of overall energy and cost needed and may also need NOx clean‐up measures. Methanol from LNG needs CCS for decarbonization while methanol from biomass does not and also seems to be a good candidate in terms of energy financial cost and TRL. The present analysis consistently compares the various options and is useful for stakeholders involved in shipping decarbonization.
Effect of Microstructural and Environmental Variables on Ductility of Austenitic Stainless Steels
Sep 2019
Publication
Austenitic stainless steels are used extensively in harsh environments including for high-pressure gaseous hydrogen service. However the tensile ductility of this class of materials is very sensitive to materials and environmental variables. While tensile ductility is generally insufficient to qualify a material for hydrogen service ductility is an effective tool to explore microstructural and environmental variables and their effects on hydrogen susceptibility to inform understanding of the mechanisms of hydrogen effects in metals and to provide insight to microstructural variables that may improve relative performance. In this study hydrogen precharging was used to simulate high-pressure hydrogen environments to evaluate hydrogen effects on tensile properties. Several austenitic stainless steels were considered including both metastable and stable alloys. Room temperature and subambient temperature tensile properties were evaluated with three different internal hydrogen contents for type 304L and 316L austenitic stainless steels and one hydrogen content for XM-11. Significant ductility loss was observed for both metastable and stable alloys suggesting the stability of the austenitic phase is not sufficient to characterize the effects of hydrogen. Internal hydrogen does influence the character of deformation which drives local damage accumulation and ultimately fracture for both metastable and stable alloys. While a quantitative description of hydrogen-assisted fracture in austenitic stainless steels remains elusive these observations underscore the importance of the hydrogen-defect interactions and the accumulation of damage at deformation length scales.
Material Testing and Design Recommendations for Components Exposed to Hydrogen Enhanced Fatigue – the Mathryce Project
Sep 2013
Publication
The three years European MATHRYCE project dedicated to material testing and design recommendations for components exposed to hydrogen enhanced fatigue started in October 2012. Its main goal is to provide an “easy” to implement methodology based on lab-scale experimental tests under hydrogen gas to assess the service life of a real scale component taking into account fatigue loading under hydrogen gas. Dedicated experimental tests will be developed for this purpose. In the present paper the proposed approach is presented and compared to the methodologies currently developed elsewhere in the world.
European Hydrogen Safety Training Platform for First Responders- Hyresponse Project
Sep 2013
Publication
The paper presents HyResponse project i.e. a European Hydrogen Safety Training Platform that targets to train First responders to acquire professional knowledge and skills to contribute to FCH permitting process as approving authority. The threefold training program is described: educational training operational-level training on mock-up real scale transport and hydrogen stationary installations and innovative virtual training exercises reproducing entire accident scenarios. The paper highlights how the three pilot sessions for European First Responders in a face to face mode will be organized to get a feedback on the training program. The expected outputs are also presented i.e. the Emergency Response Guide and a public website including teaching material and online interactive virtual training.
Probability of Occurrence of ISO 14687-2 Contaminants in Hydrogen: Principles and Examples from Steam Methane Reforming and Electrolysis (Water and Chlor-alkali) Production Processes Model
Apr 2018
Publication
According to European Directive 2014/94/EU hydrogen providers have the responsibility to prove that their hydrogen is of suitable quality for fuel cell vehicles. Contaminants may originate from hydrogen production transportation refuelling station or maintenance operation. This study investigated the probability of presence of the 13 gaseous contaminants (ISO 14687-2) in hydrogen on 3 production processes: steam methane reforming (SMR) process with pressure swing adsorption (PSA) chlor-alkali membrane electrolysis process and water proton exchange membrane electrolysis process with temperature swing adsorption. The rationale behind the probability of contaminant presence according to process knowledge and existing barriers is highlighted. No contaminant was identified as possible or frequent for the three production processes except oxygen (frequent for chlor-alkali membrane process) carbon monoxide (frequent) and nitrogen (possible) for SMR with PSA. Based on it a hydrogen quality assurance plan following ISO 19880-8 can be devised to support hydrogen providers in monitoring the relevant contaminants.
Predicting Radiative Characteristics of Hydrogen and Hythane Jet Fires Using Firefoam
Sep 2013
Publication
A possible consequence of pressurized hydrogen release is an under-expanded jet fire. Knowledge of the flame length radiative heat flux and fraction as well as the effects of variations in ground reflectance is important for safety assessment. The present study applies an open source CFD code FireFOAM to study the radiation characteristics of hydrogen and hydrogen/methane jet fires. For combustion the eddy dissipation concept for multi-component fuels recently developed by the authors in the large eddy simulation (LES) framework is used. The radiative heat is computed with the finite volume discrete ordinates model in conjunction with the weighted-sum-of-gray-gases model for the absorption/emission coefficient. The pseudo-diameter approach is used in which the corresponding parameters are calculated using the correlations of Birch et al. [22]. The predicted flame length and radiant fraction are in good agreement with the measurements of Schefer et al. [2] Studer et al. [3] and Ekoto et al. [6]. In order to account for the effects of variation in ground surface reflectance the emissivity of hydrogen flames was modified following Ekoto et al. [6]. Four cases with different ground reflectance are computed. The predictions show that the ground surface reflectance only has minor effect on the surface emissive power of the hydrogen jet fire. The radiant fractions fluctuate from 0.168 to 0.176 close to the suggested value of 0.16 by Ekoto et al.[6] based on the analysis of their measurements.
Numerical Study on Spontaneous Ignition of Pressurized Hydrogen Release Through a Length of Tube
Sep 2009
Publication
The issue of spontaneous ignition of highly pressurized hydrogen release is of important safety concern e.g. in the assessment of risk and design of safety measures. This paper reports on recent numerical investigation of this phenomenon through releases via a length of tube. This mimics a potential accidental scenario involving release through instrument line. The implicit large eddy simulation (ILES) approach was used with the 5th-order weighted essentially non-oscillatory (WENO) scheme. A mixture-averaged multi-component approach was used for accurate calculation of molecular transport. The thin flame was resolved with fine grid resolution and the autoignition and combustion chemistry were accounted for using a 21-step kinetic scheme.<br/>The numerical study revealed that the finite rupture process of the initial pressure boundary plays an important role in the spontaneous ignition. The rupture process induces significant turbulent mixing at the contact region via shock reflections and interactions. The predicted leading shock velocity inside the tube increases during the early stages of the release and then stabilizes at a nearly constant value which is higher than that predicted by one-dimensional analysis. The air behind the leading shock is shock-heated and mixes with the released hydrogen in the contact region. Ignition is firstly initiated inside the tube and then a partially premixed flame is developed. Significant amount of shock-heated air and well developed partially premixed flames are two major factors providing potential energy to overcome the strong under-expansion and flow divergence following spouting from the tube.<br/>Parametric studies were also conducted to investigate the effect of rupture time release pressure tube length and diameter on the likelihood of spontaneous ignition. It was found that a slower rupture time and a lower release pressure will lead to increases in ignition delay time and hence reduces the likelihood of spontaneous ignition. If the tube length is smaller than a certain value even though ignition could take place inside the tube the flame is unlikely to be sufficiently strong to overcome under-expansion and flow divergence after spouting from the tube and hence is likely to be quenched.
Injecting Hydrogen into the Gas Network- A Literature Search
Jan 2015
Publication
Hydrogen injection into the GB gas network is a likely consequence of using excess offshore wind generated electricity to power large-scale onshore electrolysis plants. Government and DECC in particular now have a keen interest in supporting technologies that can take advantage of the continued use of the gas networks. HSE can contribute to the government’s Growth and Green agendas by effectively regulating and safely enabling this technology.
This report will allow HSE to regulate effectively by pulling together scientific and engineering knowledge regarding the hazards of conveying hydrogen/methane mixtures in network pipes and its use in consumer appliances into a single ‘state-of-play’ report. It enables Energy Division to consider and assess submissions for ‘gas quality’ exemptions to the Gas Safety (Management) Regulations 1996 (GSMR).
In particular the report has examined the following hazards:
This report will allow HSE to regulate effectively by pulling together scientific and engineering knowledge regarding the hazards of conveying hydrogen/methane mixtures in network pipes and its use in consumer appliances into a single ‘state-of-play’ report. It enables Energy Division to consider and assess submissions for ‘gas quality’ exemptions to the Gas Safety (Management) Regulations 1996 (GSMR).
In particular the report has examined the following hazards:
- conveyance of H2/CH4 mixtures in network pipes
- use of H2/CH4 mixtures in consumer appliances (domestic/commercial/industrial)
- explosion and damage characteristics (and ignition likelihood) of H2/CH4 mixtures
- effects on odourisation
Numerical Modelling of Hazards of Hydrogen Storage
Sep 2017
Publication
For the general public to use hydrogen as a vehicle fuel they must be able to handle hydrogen with the same degree of confidence as conventional liquid and gaseous fuels. The hazards associated with jet releases from accidental leaks in a vehicle-refuelling environment must be considered if hydrogen is stored and used as a high-pressure gas since a jet release can result in a fire or explosion. This paper describes the work done by us in modelling some of the consequences of accidental releases of hydrogen implemented in our Fire Explosion Release Dispersion (FRED) software. The new dispersion model is validated against experimental data available in the open literature. The model predictions of hydrogen gas concentration as a function of distance are in good agreement with experiments. In addition FRED has been used to model the consequence of the bursting of a vessel containing compressed hydrogen. The results obtained from FRED i.e. overpressure as a function of distance match well in comparison to experiments. Overall it is concluded that FRED can model the consequences of an accidental release of hydrogen and the blast waves generated from bursting of vessel containing compressed hydrogen
Development of a Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Vehicle Emergency Response National Template
Sep 2013
Publication
The California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP) is currently working with key stakeholders like the US Department of Energy (DOE) and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) to develop a national template for educating and training first responders about hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicles (FCV) and hydrogen fuelling infrastructure. Currently there are several existing programs that either have some related FCV/hydrogen material or have plans to incorporate this in the future. To create a robust national emergency responder (ER) program the strongest elements from these existing programs are considered for incorporation into the template. Working with the key stakeholders the national template will be evaluated on a regular basis to ensure accurate and up to date information and resources and effective teaching techniques for the emergency response community. This paper describes the evaluation process discusses elements of the template and reports on the steps and progress to implementation; all in the effort to effectively support the emergency response community as hydrogen infrastructure develops and FCVs are leased or sold.
Hydrogen Storage Performance of the Multi-principal-component CoFeMnTiVZr Alloy in Electrochemical and Gas–solid Reactions
Jun 2020
Publication
The single-phase multi-principal-component CoFeMnTiVZr alloy was obtained by rapid solidification and examined by a combination of electrochemical methods and gas–solid reactions. X-ray diffraction and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy analyses reveal a hexagonal Laves-phase structure (type C14). Cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy investigations in the hydrogen absorption/desorption region give insight into the absorption/desorption kinetics and the change in the desorption charge in terms of the applied potential. The thickness of the hydrogen absorption layer obtained by the electrochemical reaction is estimated by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. The electrochemical hydrogen storage capacity for a given applied voltage is calculated from a series of chronoamperometry and cyclic voltammetry measurements. The selected alloy exhibits good stability for reversible hydrogen absorption and demonstrates a maximum hydrogen capacity of ∼1.9 wt% at room temperature. The amount of hydrogen absorbed in the gas–solid reaction reaches 1.7 wt% at 298 K and 5 MPa evidencing a good correlation with the electrochemical results.
Ignited Releases of Liquid Hydrogen: Safety Considerations of Thermal and Overpressure Effects
Sep 2013
Publication
If the ‘Hydrogen Economy’ is to progress more hydrogen fuelling stations are required. In the short term and in the absence of a hydrogen distribution network these fuelling stations will have to be supplied by liquid hydrogen (LH2) road tankers. Such a development will increase the number of tanker offloading operations significantly and these may need to be performed in close proximity to the general public. LH2 was first investigated experimentally as large-scale spills of LH2 at a rate of 60 litres per minute. Measurements were made on un-ignited releases which included the concentration of hydrogen in air thermal gradients in the concrete substrate liquid pool formation and temperatures within the pool. Computational modelling on the un-ignited spills was also performed. The experimental work on ignited releases of LH2 detailed in this paper is a continuation of the work performed by Royle and Willoughby. The experimental findings presented are split into three phenomena; jet-fires in high and low wind conditions ‘burn-back’ of ignited clouds and secondary explosions post ‘burn-back’. The aim of this work was to determine the hazards and severity of a realistic ignited spill of LH2 focussing on; flammability limits of an LH2 vapour cloud flame speeds through an LH2 vapour cloud and subsequent radiative heat levels after ignition. An attempt was made to estimate the magnitude of an explosion that occurred during one of the releases. The results of these experiments will inform the wider hydrogen community and contribute to the development of more robust modelling tools. The resulting data were used to propose safety distances for LH2 offloading facilities which will help to update and develop guidance for codes and standards.
Innovation Insights Brief 2019: New Hydrogen Economy - Hope or Hype?
Jun 2019
Publication
Hydrogen and fuel cell technologies have experienced cycles of high expectations followed by impractical realities. This time around however falling renewable energy and fuel cell prices stringent climate change requirements and the discrete involvement of China are step changes. The combination of these factors is leading to realistic potential for hydrogen’s role in the Grand Transition.<br/>Having conducted exploratory interviews with leaders from all around the globe the World Energy Council is featuring eight use cases which illustrate hydrogen’s potential. These range from decarbonising hard-to-abate sectors such as heat industry and transport to supporting the integration of renewables and providing an energy storage solution.<br/>Dr Angela Wilkinson Secretary General and former Senior Director Scenarios and Business Insights: “Green and blue hydrogen can refresh those parts of the energy system transition that electrification cannot reach.”<br/>This Innovation Insights Brief is part of a series of publications by the World Energy Council focused on Innovation. In a fast-paced era of disruptive changes this brief aims at facilitating strategic sharing of knowledge between the Council’s members and the other energy stakeholders and policy shapers.
Modelling and Simulation of Lean Hydrogen-air Deflagrations
Sep 2013
Publication
The paper describes CFD modelling of lean hydrogen mixture deflagrations. Large eddy simulation (LES) premixed combustion model developed at the University of Ulster to account phenomena related to large-scale deflagrations was adjusted specifically for lean hydrogen-air flames. Experiments by Kumar (2006) on lean hydrogen-air mixture deflagrations in a 120 m3 vessel at initially quiescent conditions were simulated. 10% by volume hydrogen-air mixture was chosen for simulation to provide stable downward flame propagation; experiments with the smallest vent area 0.55 m2 were used as having the least apparent flame instabilities affecting the pressure dynamics. Deflagrations with igniter located centrally near vent and at far from the vent wall were simulated. Analysis of simulation results and experimental pressure dynamics demonstrated that flame instabilities developing after vent opening made the significant contribution to maximum overpressure in the considered experiments. Potential causes of flame instabilities are discussed and their comparative role for different igniter locations is demonstrated.
Clean Energy and the Hydrogen Economy
Jan 2017
Publication
In recent years new-found interest in the hydrogen economy from both industry and academia has helped to shed light on its potential. Hydrogen can enable an energy revolution by providing much needed flexibility in renewable energy systems. As a clean energy carrier hydrogen offers a range of benefits for simultaneously decarbonizing the transport residential commercial and industrial sectors. Hydrogen is shown here to have synergies with other low-carbon alternatives and can enable a more cost-effective transition to de-carbonized and cleaner energy systems. This paper presents the opportunities for the use of hydrogen in key sectors of the economy and identifies the benefits and challenges within the hydrogen supply chain for power-to-gas power-to-power and gas-to-gas supply pathways. While industry players have already started the market introduction of hydrogen fuel cell systems including fuel cell electric vehicles and micro-combined heat and power devices the use of hydrogen at grid scale requires the challenges of clean hydrogen production bulk storage and distribution to be resolved. Ultimately greater government support in partnership with industry and academia is still needed to realize hydrogen's potential across all economic sectors.
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Link to document download on Royal Society Website
Innovation Insights Brief: Energy Scenarios Comparison Review
Apr 2019
Publication
Energy transition is a part of a much wider Grand Transition which is not all about energy. Energy transition cannot be achieved all at once or by any one actor. Relying only on better energy modelling and forecasting to guide successful transition will be fatal even in a data-rich era.<br/>It is timely for energy leaders to ask:<br/>Are global energy scenarios achieving their potential in opening up action on new energy futures?<br/>How do the Council’s World Energy Scenarios compare with global energy outlooks scenarios and normative visions used by others and what can we learn by contrasting the increasing richness of energy futures thinking?<br/>In anticipation of the 24th World Energy Congress the Council is refreshing its global energy foresight and updating its global scenarios narratives. The focus is on an ‘innovation twist to 2040’ and the use of scenarios to explore and navigate new exponential growth opportunities for accelerating successful energy transition in an era of epic and disruptive innovation.<br/>As a part of the refresh the Council has conducted a comparison study of global energy scenarios in order to test the continued plausibility relevance and challenge of its own existing scenario set the World Energy Scenarios 2016 launched at the 23rd World Energy Congress in Istanbul in 2016.<br/>By comparing the methods narratives and assumptions associated with a benchmarkable set of global energy futures initiatives and studies the Council seeks to provide our members with clearer understanding and new insights on energy transition while preparing them to better engage with leadership dialogues which pivot on visions of a new energy future.<br/>The review also provides an opportunity to reflect on the challenges and obstacles for utilising global energy scenarios to drive impact and the challenges in bridging agile and flexible qualitative storytelling with long term quantitative energy modelling."
Environmental Sustainability of Alternative Marine Propulsion Technologies Powered by Hydrogen - A Life Cycle Assessment Approach
Jan 2022
Publication
Shipping is a very important source of pollution worldwide. In recent years numerous actions and measures have been developed trying to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases (GHG) from the marine exhaust emissions in the fight against climate change boosting the Sustainable Development Goal 13. Following this target the action of hydrogen as energy vector makes it a suitable alternative to be used as fuel constituting a very promising energy carrier for energy transition and decarbonization in maritime transport. The objective of this study is to develop an ex-ante environmental evaluation of two promising technologies for vessels propulsion a H2 Polymeric Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) and a H2 Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) in order to determine their viability and eligibility compared to the traditional one a diesel ICE. The applied methodology follows the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) guidelines considering a functional unit of 1 kWh of energy produced. LCA results reveal that both alternatives have great potential to promote the energy transition particularly the H2 ICE. However as technologies readiness level is quite low it was concluded that the assessment has been conducted at a very early stage so their sustainability and environmental performance may change as they become more widely developed and deployed which can be only achieved with political and stakeholder’s involvement and collaboration.
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