United Kingdom
Hubs and Clusters Approach to Unlock the Development of Carbon Capture and Storage - Case Study in Spain
Jul 2021
Publication
Xiaolong Sun,
Juan Alcalde,
Mahdi Bakhtbidar,
Javier Elío,
Víctor Vilarrasa,
Jacobo Canal,
Julio Ballesteros,
Niklas Heinemann,
Stuart Haszeldine,
Andrew Cavanagh,
David Vega-Maza,
Fernando Rubiera,
Roberto Martínez-Orio,
Gareth Johnson,
Ramon Carbonell,
Ignacio Marzan,
Anna Travé and
Enrique Gomez-Rivas
Many countries have assigned an indispensable role for carbon capture and storage (CCS) in their national climate change mitigation pathways. However CCS deployment has stalled in most countries with only limited commercial projects realised mainly in hydrocarbon-rich countries for enhanced oil recovery. If the Paris Agreement is to be met then this progress must be replicated widely including hydrocarbon-limited countries. In this study we present a novel source-to-sink assessment methodology based on a hubs and clusters approach to identify favourable regions for CCS deployment and attract renewed public and political interest in viable deployment pathways. Here we apply this methodology to Spain where fifteen emission hubs from both the power and the hard-to-abate industrial sectors are identified as potential CO2 sources. A priority storage structure and two reserves for each hub are selected based on screening and ranking processes using a multi-criteria decision-making method. The priority source-to-sink clusters are identified indicating four potential development regions with the North-Western and North-Eastern Spain recognised as priority regions due to resilience provided by different types of CO2 sources and geological structures. Up to 68.7 Mt CO2 per year comprising around 21% of Spanish emissions can be connected to clusters linked to feasible storage. CCS especially in the hard-to-abate sector and in combination with other low-carbon energies (e.g. blue hydrogen and bioenergy) remains a significant and unavoidable contributor to the Paris Agreement’s mid-century net-zero target. This study shows that the hubs and clusters approach can facilitate CCS deployment in Spain and other hydrocarbon-limited countries.
Future Pathways for Energy Networks: A Review of International Experiences in High Income Countries
Oct 2022
Publication
Energy networks are the systems of pipes and wires by which different energy vectors are transported from where they are produced to where they are needed. As such these networks are central to facilitating countries’ moves away from a reliance on fossil fuels to a system based around the efficient use of renewable and other low carbon forms of energy. In this review we highlight the challenges facing energy networks from this transition in a sample of key high income countries. We identify the technical and other innovations being implemented to meet these challenges and describe some of the new policy and regulatory developments that are incentivising the required changes. We then review evidence from the literature about the benefits of moving to a more integrated approach based on the concept of a Multi-Vector Energy Network (MVEN). Under this approach the different networks are planned and operated together to achieve greater functionality and performance than simply the sum of the individual networks. We find that most studies identify a range of benefits from an MVEN approach but that these findings are based on model simulations. Further work is therefore needed to verify whether the benefits can be realised in practice and to identify how any risks can be mitigated.
An Energy Systems Model of a Large Commercial Liquid Hydrogen Aircraft in a Low-carbon Future
Apr 2023
Publication
Liquid hydrogen (LH2) aircraft have the potential to achieve carbon neutrality. However if the hydrogen is produced using electricity grids that utilise fossil fuel they have a non-zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emission associated with their well-to-wing pathway. To assess the potential of LH2 in aviation decarbonisation an energy systems comparison of large commercial LH2 liquified natural gas (LNG) conventional Jet-A and LH2 dual-fuel aircraft is presented. The performance of each aircraft is compared towards 2050 over which three system changes occur: (1) LH2 aircraft technology develops; (2) both world average and region-specific grid electricity which is used to produce the hydrogen decarbonises; and (3) the International Air Transportation Association (IATA) emissions targets which are used to restrict the passenger-range performance of each aircraft tighten. In 2050 the emissions of all aircraft are thus constrained to 0.063 kg-CO2/p-km relative to 0.110 kg-CO2/p-km for the unconstrained Jet A fuelled Boeing 787-8. It is estimated that in this year an LH2 aircraft powered by fuel cells and sourcing world average electricity can travel 6000 km 20% further than the conventional Jet A aircraft that is also constrained to meet the IATA targets but not as far as the LNG aircraft. At its maximum range the LH2 aircraft carries 84% of the Jet A passenger demand. Analysis using region-specific hydrogen indicates that LH2 aircraft can travel further than LNG aircraft in North America only accounting for 17% of the global demand. 1.59 times the current aviation energy consumption is required if all conventional aircraft are replaced with LH2 designs. Under stricter emissions constraints than those outlined by the IATA LH2 outperforms LNG in Europe and the Americas accounting for 41% of the global demand. Also in these regions the range energy consumption and passenger capacity of LH2 aircraft can be improved upon by combining the advantages of LH2 with LNG in dual-fuel aircraft concepts. The use of LH2 is therefore advantageous within several prominent niches of a future decarbonising aviation system.
Challenges of Industrial-Scale Testing Infrastructure for Green Hydrogen Technologies
Apr 2023
Publication
Green hydrogen is set to become the energy carrier of the future provided that production technologies such as electrolysis and solar water splitting can be scaled to global dimensions. Testing these hydrogen technologies on the MW scale requires the development of dedicated new test facilities for which there is no precedent. This perspective highlights the challenges to be met on the path to implementing a test facility for large-scale water electrolysis photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic water splitting and aims to serve as a much-needed blueprint for future test facilities based on the authors’ own experience in establishing the Hydrogen Lab Leuna. Key aspects to be considered are the electricity and utility requirements of the devices under testing the analysis of the produced H2 and O2 and the safety regulations for handling large quantities of H2 . Choosing the right location is crucial not only for meeting these device requirements but also for improving financial viability through supplying affordable electricity and providing a remunerated H2 sink to offset the testing costs. Due to their lower TRL and requirement for a light source large-scale photocatalysis and photoelectrochemistry testing are less developed and the requirements are currently less predictable.
Current and Future role of Haber–Bosch Ammonia in a Carbon-free Energy Landscape
Dec 2019
Publication
The future of a carbon-free society relies on the alignment of the intermittent production of renewable energy with our continuous and increasing energy demands. Long-term energy storage in molecules with high energy content and density such as ammonia can act as a buffer versus short-term storage (e.g. batteries). In this paper we demonstrate that the Haber–Bosch ammonia synthesis loop can indeed enable a second ammonia revolution as energy vector by replacing the CO2 intensive methane-fed process with hydrogen produced by water splitting using renewable electricity. These modifications demand a redefinition of the conventional Haber–Bosch process with a new optimisation beyond the current one which was driven by cheap and abundant natural gas and relaxed environmental concerns during the last century. Indeed the switch to electrical energy as fuel and feedstock to replace fossil fuels (e.g. methane) will lead to dramatic energy efficiency improvements through the use of high efficiency electrical motors and complete elimination of direct CO2 emissions. Despite the technical feasibility of the electrically-driven Haber–Bosch ammonia the question still remains whether such revolution will take place. We reveal that its success relies on two factors: increased energy efficiency and the development of small-scale distributed and agile processes that can align to the geographically isolated and intermittent renewable energy sources. The former requires not only higher electrolyser efficiencies for hydrogen production but also a holistic approach to the ammonia synthesis loop with the replacement of the condensation separation step by alternative technologies such as absorption and catalysis development. Such innovations will open the door to moderate pressure systems the development and deployment of novel ammonia synthesis catalysts and even more importantly the opportunity for integration of reaction and separation steps to overcome equilibrium limitations. When realised green ammonia will reshape the current energy landscape by directly replacing fossil fuels in transportation heating electricity etc. and as done in the last century food.
Hydrogenerally - Episode 9: Nuclear Hydrogen
Jan 2023
Publication
In this episode of the podcast Debra Jones Chemistry Knowledge Transfer Manager and Ray Chegwin Nuclear Knowledge Transfer Manager from Innovate UK KTN talk about nuclear uses for hydrogen with special guest Allan Simpson Technical Lead at the National Nuclear Laboratory.
The podcast can be found on their website.
The podcast can be found on their website.
HyDeploy2 Technical Services Report: Downstream Gas Standards Review
Jan 2021
Publication
The application of appropriate procedures in the downstream gas industry (defined as any works downstream of the emergency control value) is critical in protecting consumers of gas both domestic and commercial. The two primary standard setting bodies for the downstream gas industry are the British Standard Institution (BSI) and the Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers (IGEM). To ensure only competent engineers carry out works on a gas installation all gas businesses or selfemployed persons must become a member of Gas Safe Register as stipulated by the Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998 1 and each gas operative shall be included on the register and hold a valid license card that covers the areas of gas work they undertake. Membership of the Gas Safe Register is contingent upon demonstration of competency the recognised competency assessments are based on the relevant BSI and IGEM standards. Therefore the primary source of a gas operative’s competency to work on natural gas installations are the associated BSI and IGEM natural gas downstream standards.<br/>Investigation was undertaken to understand the potential implications of introducing 20 mol% hydrogen (H2) within natural gas supplies on the ability of gas operatives to competently carry out works. This investigation took the form of identifying all BSI and IGEM standards that could be applied on natural gas installations and reviewing them within the context of the known effects of introducing a 20 mol% H2 blend. Following review a series of technical questions were generated and responded to by the Health and Safety Executive Science Division. The responses provided were then reviewed and if considered necessary challenged to provide further information. The procedural review was led by Blue Flame Associates a body deemed sufficiently competent in downstream standards training certification and investigation. The report was subsequently reviewed by industry and feedback received. The industry comments were reviewed by the Project Team and where considered necessary the report was updated.
Global Green Hydrogen-based Steel Opportunities Surrounding High Quality Renewable Energy and Iron Ore Deposits
May 2023
Publication
The steel sector currently accounts for 7% of global energy-related CO2 emissions and requires deep reform to disconnect from fossil fuels. Here we investigate the market competitiveness of one of the widely considered decarbonisation routes for primary steel production: green hydrogen-based direct reduction of iron ore followed by electric arc furnace steelmaking. Through analysing over 300 locations by combined use of optimisation and machine learning we show that competitive renewables-based steel production is located nearby the tropic of Capricorn and Cancer characterised by superior solar with supplementary onshore wind in addition to high-quality iron ore and low steelworker wages. If coking coal prices remain high fossil-free steel could attain competitiveness in favourable locations from 2030 further improving towards 2050. Large-scale implementation requires attention to the abundance of suitable iron ore and other resources such as land and water technical challenges associated with direct reduction and future supply chain configuration.
CCS Industrial Clusters: Building a Social License to Operate
Jun 2022
Publication
This paper explores the opportunities for and progress in establishing a social licence to operate (SLO) for CCS in industrial clusters in the UK focusing on the perspectives of key stakeholders. The evolution of narratives and networks relating to geographical clusters as niches for CCS in industrial decarbonisation is evaluated in relation to seven pillars supporting SLO. Evidence is drawn from a combination of cluster mapping documentary analysis and stakeholder interviews to identify the wider contexts underpinning industrial decarbonisation stakeholder networks interaction and communication critical narratives the conditions for establishing trust and confidence different scales of social licence and maintaining a SLO. The delivery of a sustainable industrial decarbonisation strategy will depend on multiple layers of social licence involving discourses at different scales and potentially for different systems (heat transport different industrial processes). Despite setbacks as a result of funding cancellations and changes to government policy the UK is positioned to be at the forefront of CCS deployment. While there is a high ambition and a strong narrative from government of the urgency to accelerate projects involving CCS clear coordinated strategy and funding frameworks are necessary to build confidence that UK policy is both compatible with net zero and economically viable.
Hydrogenerally - Episode 10: Green Hydrogen Production
Feb 2023
Publication
Debra Jones Chemistry Knowledge Transfer Manager and Simon Buckley Zero Emission Mobility Knowledge Transfer Manager from Innovate UK KTN talk about green hydrogen production with their special guest Chris Jackson CEO & Founder at Protium.
This podcast discussion centres around methods of producing clean hydrogen from renewable energy sources the innovative projects Protium is working on and how much green hydrogen will the UK produce by 2030 and beyond.
The podcast can be found on their website.
This podcast discussion centres around methods of producing clean hydrogen from renewable energy sources the innovative projects Protium is working on and how much green hydrogen will the UK produce by 2030 and beyond.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Maximizing Green Hydrogen Production from Water Electrocatalysis: Modeling and Optimization
Mar 2023
Publication
The use of green hydrogen as a fuel source for marine applications has the potential to significantly reduce the carbon footprint of the industry. The development of a sustainable and cost-effective method for producing green hydrogen has gained a lot of attention. Water electrolysis is the best and most environmentally friendly method for producing green hydrogen-based renewable energy. Therefore identifying the ideal operating parameters of the water electrolysis process is critical to hydrogen production. Three controlling factors must be appropriately identified to boost hydrogen generation namely electrolysis time (min) electric voltage (V) and catalyst amount (µg). The proposed methodology contains the following two phases: modeling and optimization. Initially a robust model of the water electrolysis process in terms of controlling factors was established using an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) based on the experimental dataset. After that a modern pelican optimization algorithm (POA) was employed to identify the ideal parameters of electrolysis duration electric voltage and catalyst amount to enhance hydrogen production. Compared to the measured datasets and response surface methodology (RSM) the integration of ANFIS and POA improved the generated hydrogen by around 1.3% and 1.7% respectively. Overall this study highlights the potential of ANFIS modeling and optimal parameter identification in optimizing the performance of solar-powered water electrocatalysis systems for green hydrogen production in marine applications. This research could pave the way for the more widespread adoption of this technology in the marine industry which would help to reduce the industry’s carbon footprint and promote sustainability.
Advancements in Hydrogen Production, Storage, Distribution and Refuelling for a Sustainable Transport Sector: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles
Jul 2023
Publication
Hydrogen is considered as a promising fuel in the 21st century due to zero tailpipe CO2 emissions from hydrogen-powered vehicles. The use of hydrogen as fuel in vehicles can play an important role in decarbonising the transport sector and achieving net-zero emissions targets. However there exist several issues related to hydrogen production efficient hydrogen storage system and transport and refuelling infrastructure where the current research is focussing on. This study critically reviews and analyses the recent technological advancements of hydrogen production storage and distribution technologies along with their cost and associated greenhouse gas emissions. This paper also comprehensively discusses the hydrogen refuelling methods identifies issues associated with fast refuelling and explores the control strategies. Additionally it explains various standard protocols in relation to safe and efficient refuelling analyses economic aspects and presents the recent technological advancements related to refuelling infrastructure. This study suggests that the production cost of hydrogen significantly varies from one technology to others. The current hydrogen production cost from fossil sources using the most established technologies were estimated at about $0.8–$3.5/kg H2 depending on the country of production. The underground storage technology exhibited the lowest storage cost followed by compressed hydrogen and liquid hydrogen storage. The levelised cost of the refuelling station was reported to be about $1.5–$8/kg H2 depending on the station's capacity and country. Using portable refuelling stations were identified as a promising option in many countries for small fleet size low-to-medium duty vehicles. Following the current research progresses this paper in the end identifies knowledge gaps and thereby presents future research directions.
Beyond the triangle of renewable Energy Acceptance: The Five Dimensions of Domestic Hydrogen Acceptance
Aug 2022
Publication
The ‘deep’ decarbonization of the residential sector is a priority for meeting national climate change targets especially in countries such as the UK where natural gas has been the dominant fuel source for over half a century. Hydrogen blending and repurposing the national grid to supply low-carbon hydrogen gas may offer respective short- and long-term solutions to achieving emissions reduction across parts of the housing sector. Despite this imperative the social acceptance of domestic hydrogen energy technologies remains underexplored by sustainability scholars with limited insights regarding consumer perceptions and expectations of the transition. A knowledge deficit of this magnitude is likely to hinder effective policymaking and may result in sub-optimal rollout strategies that derail the trajectory of the net zero agenda. Addressing this knowledge gap this study develops a conceptual framework for examining the consumer-facing side of the hydrogen transition. The paper affirms that the spatiotemporal patterns of renewable energy adoption are shaped by a range of interacting scales dimensions and factors. The UK’s emerging hydrogen landscape and its actor-network is characterized as a heterogenous system composed of dynamic relationships and interdependencies. Future studies should engage with domestic hydrogen acceptance as a co-evolving multi-scalar phenomenon rooted in the interplay of five distinct dimensions: attitudinal socio-political community market and behavioral acceptance. If arrived to behavioral acceptance helps realize the domestication of hydrogen heating and cooking established on grounds on cognitive sociopolitical and sociocultural legitimacy. The research community should internalize the complexity and richness of consumer attitudes and responses through a more critical and reflexive approach to the study of social acceptance.
The Hydrogen Fuel Cell Battery: Replacing the Combustion Engine in Heavy Vehicles
Nov 2022
Publication
This opinion piece describes how the optimal integration of hydrogen-fuel-cell with battery in a heavy highly-utilised vehicle can extend vehicle range while cutting refuelling time and reducing cost compared to a pure battery electric vehicle.
IGEM/TD/13 Edition 3 Supplement 1 - Pressure Regulating Installations for Hydrogen at Pressures Exceeding 7 Bar
Nov 2021
Publication
IGEM/TD/13 Standard applies to the safe design construction inspection testing operation and maintenance of pressure regulating installations (PRIs) in accordance with current knowledge and operational experience.
This Supplement provides additional requirements for new PRIs to be used for the transmission of Hydrogen including Natural Gas/Hydrogen blended mixtures (subsequently referred to as NG/H blends) and for the repurposing of Natural Gas (NG) PRIs for Hydrogen service.
NG/H blends are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol % Hydrogen with respect to limits on design stresses the potential effect on the material properties and damage and defect categories and acceptance levels unless an additional technical evaluation is carried out to qualify the materials.
NG/H blends containing in excess of 10 mol % Hydrogen are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol.% Hydrogen with respect to all other requirements except for hazardous areas.
This Supplement gives additional recommendations for PRIs and installations
You can purchase the standard here
This Supplement provides additional requirements for new PRIs to be used for the transmission of Hydrogen including Natural Gas/Hydrogen blended mixtures (subsequently referred to as NG/H blends) and for the repurposing of Natural Gas (NG) PRIs for Hydrogen service.
NG/H blends are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol % Hydrogen with respect to limits on design stresses the potential effect on the material properties and damage and defect categories and acceptance levels unless an additional technical evaluation is carried out to qualify the materials.
NG/H blends containing in excess of 10 mol % Hydrogen are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol.% Hydrogen with respect to all other requirements except for hazardous areas.
This Supplement gives additional recommendations for PRIs and installations
- with an upstream maximum operating pressure (MOP) not greater than 100 bar
- with an outlet pressure greater than or equal to 7 bar
- for use with Hydrogen or NG/H blends with a Hydrogen content greater than 10 %
- operating with a temperature range between -20°C and 120°C.
You can purchase the standard here
Decarbonisation of Heavy-duty Diesel Engines Using Hydrogen Fuel: A Review of the Potential Impact NOx Emissions
Jul 2022
Publication
As countries seek ways to meet climate change commitments hydrogen fuel offers a low-carbon alternative for sectors where battery electrification may not be viable. Blending hydrogen with fossil fuels requires only modest technological adaptation however since combustion is retained nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions remain a potential disbenefit. We review the potential air quality impacts arising from the use of hydrogen–diesel blends in heavy-duty diesel engines a powertrain which lends itself to hydrogen co-fuelling. Engine load is identified as a key factor influencing NOx emissions from hydrogen–diesel combustion in heavy-duty engines although variation in other experimental parameters across studies complicates this relationship. Combining results from peer-reviewed literature allows an estimation to be made of plausible NOx emissions from hydrogen–diesel combustion relative to pure-diesel combustion. At 0–30% engine load which encompasses the average load for mobile engine applications NOx emissions changes were in the range 59 to +24% for a fuel blend with 40 e% hydrogen. However at 50–100% load which approximately corresponds to stationary engine applications NOx emissions changes were in the range 28 to +107%. Exhaust gas recirculation may be able to reduce NOx emissions at very high and very low loads when hydrogen is blended with diesel and existing exhaust aftertreatment technologies are also likely to be effective. Recent commercial reporting on the development of hydrogen and hydrogen–diesel dual fuel combustion in large diesel engines are also summarised. There is currently some disconnection between manufacturer reported impacts of hydrogen-fuelling on NOx emissions (always lower emissions) and the conclusions drawn from the peer reviewed literature (frequently higher emissions).
Numerical Study on Hydrogen–Gasoline Dual-Fuel Spark Ignition Engine
Nov 2022
Publication
Hydrogen as a suitable and clean energy carrier has been long considered a primary fuel or in combination with other conventional fuels such as gasoline and diesel. Since the density of hydrogen is very low in port fuel-injection configuration the engine’s volumetric efficiency reduces due to the replacement of hydrogen by intake air. Therefore hydrogen direct in-cylinder injection (injection after the intake valve closes) can be a suitable solution for hydrogen utilization in spark ignition (SI) engines. In this study the effects of hydrogen direct injection with different hydrogen energy shares (HES) on the performance and emissions characteristics of a gasoline port-injection SI engine are investigated based on reactive computational fluid dynamics. Three different injection timings of hydrogen together with five different HES are applied at low and full load on a hydrogen– gasoline dual-fuel SI engine. The results show that retarded hydrogen injection timing increases the concentration of hydrogen near the spark plug resulting in areas with higher average temperatures which led to NOX emission deterioration at −120 Crank angle degree After Top Dead Center (CAD aTDC) start of injection (SOI) compared to the other modes. At −120 CAD aTDC SOI for 50% HES the amount of NOX was 26% higher than −140 CAD aTDC SOI. In the meanwhile an advanced hydrogen injection timing formed a homogeneous mixture of hydrogen which decreased the HC and soot concentration so that −140 CAD aTDC SOI implied the lowest amount of HC and soot. Moreover with the increase in the amount of HES the concentrations of CO CO2 and soot were reduced. Having the HES by 50% at −140 CAD aTDC SOI the concentrations of particulate matter (PM) CO and CO2 were reduced by 96.3% 90% and 46% respectively. However due to more complete combustion and an elevated combustion average temperature the amount of NOX emission increased drastically.
Life-Cycle and Applicational Analysis of Hydrogen Production and Powered Inland Marine Vessels
Aug 2023
Publication
Green energy is at the forefront of current policy research and engineering but some of the potential fuels require either a lot of deeper research or a lot of infrastructure before they can be implemented. In the case of hydrogen both are true. This report aims to analyse the potential of hydrogen as a future fuel source by performing a life-cycle assessment. Through this the well-to-tank phase of fuel production and the usage phase of the system have been analysed. Models have also been created for traditional fuel systems to best compare results. The results show that hydrogen has great potential to convert marine transport to operating off green fuels when powered through low-carbon energy sources which could reduce a huge percentage of the international community’s greenhouse gas emissions. Hydrogen produced through wind powered alkaline electrolysis produced emission data 5.25 g of CO2 equivalent per MJ compared to the 210 g per MJ produced by a medium efficiency diesel equivalent system a result 40 times larger. However with current infrastructure in most countries not utilising a great amount of green energy production the effects of hydrogen usage could be more dangerous than current fuel sources owing to the incredible energy requirements of hydrogen production with even grid (UK) powered electrolysis producing an emission level of 284 g per MJ which is an increase against standard diesel systems. From this the research concludes that without global infrastructure change hydrogen will remain as a potential fuel rather than a common one.
Hydrogen-electricity Hybrid Energy Pipelines for Railway Transportation: Design and Economic Evaluation
Mar 2024
Publication
With the decarbonization and electrification of modern railway transportation the demand for both the highcapacity electrical energy and hydrogen fuel energy is increasingly high. A novel scheme was proposed from liquid hydrogen production by surplus wind and solar energy to liquid hydrogen-electricity hybrid energy transmission for railway transportation. The 100 MW hybrid energy transmission pipeline was designed with the 10 kA/1.5 kV superconducting DC cable for electricity and cryogenic layers for liquid hydrogen and liquid nitrogen showing strong capability in transmitting “electricity + cold energy + chemical energy” simultaneously. Economic evaluation was performed with respect to the energy equipment capacity and costs with sensitivity and profitability analysis. With the discount rate 8% the dynamic payback period of the hybrid energy pipeline was 7.1 years. Results indicated that the shortest dynamic payback period of the hybrid energy pipeline was 4.8 years with the maximum transmission distance 93 km. Overall this article shows the novel concept and design of liquid hydrogen-electricity hybrid energy pipelines and proves the technical and economic feasibilities for future bulk hybrid energy transmission for railway transportation.
Ammonia as a Suitable for Fuel Cells
Aug 2014
Publication
Ammonia an important basic chemical is produced at a scale of 150 million tons per year. Half of hydrogen produced in chemical industry is used for ammonia production. Ammonia containing 17.5 wt% hydrogen is an ideal carbon-free fuel for fuel cells. Compared to hydrogen ammonia has many advantages. In this mini-review the suitability of ammonia as fuel for fuel cells the development of different types of fuel cells using ammonia as the fuel and the potential applications of ammonia fuel cells are briefly reviewed.
A Multi-energy Multi-microgrid System Planning Model for Decarbonisation and Decontamination of Isolated Systems
May 2023
Publication
Decarbonising and decontaminating remote regions in the world presents several challenges. Many of these regions feature isolation dispersed demand in large areas and a lack of economic resources that impede the development of robust and sustainable networks. Furthermore isolated systems in the developing world are mostly based on diesel generation for electricity and firewood and liquefied petroleum gas for heating as these options do not require a significant infrastructure cost. In this context we present a stochastic multi-energy multi-microgrid system planning model that integrates electricity heat and hydrogen networks in isolated systems. The model is stochastic to capture uncertainty in renewable generation outputs particularly hydro and wind and thus design a multi-energy system proved secured against such uncertainty. The model also features two distinct constraints to limit the emissions of CO2 (for decarbonisation) and particulate matter (for decontamination) and incorporates firewood as a heating source. Moreover given that the focus is on low-voltage networks we introduce a fully linear AC power flow equations set allowing the planning model to remain tractable. The model is applied to a real-world case study to design a multi-energy multi-microgrid system in an isolated region in Chilean Patagonia. In a case with a zero limit over direct CO2 emissions the total system’s cost increases by 34% with respect to an unconstrained case. In a case with a zero limit over particulate matter emissions the total system’s cost increases by 189%. Finally although an absolute zero limit over both particulate matter and direct CO2 emissions leads to a total system’s cost increase of 650% important benefits in terms of decarbonisation and decontamination can be achieved at marginal cost increments.
OIES Podcast - Hydrogen Storage for a Net-zero Carbon Future
May 2023
Publication
In this podcast David Ledesma engages in a conversation with Alex Patonia and Rahmat Poudineh on their recent paper focusing on hydrogen storage for a net-zero carbon future. The podcast delves into the various types of hydrogen storage options highlighting their relative strengths and drawbacks.
In order for a hydrogen economy to be established several key factors must be addressed including efficient and decarbonized production adequate transportation infrastructure and the deployment of suitable hydrogen storage facilities. However hydrogen presents unique challenges when it comes to storage and handling. Due to its extremely low volumetric energy density under ambient conditions hydrogen cannot be efficiently or economically stored without undergoing compression liquefaction or conversion into other more manageable substances.
At present there exist several hydrogen storage solutions at different levels of technology market and commercial readiness each with varying applications depending on specific circumstances.
Additionally the podcast explores the primary barriers that hinder investment in hydrogen storage and the essential components of a viable business model that can address the primary risks to which potential hydrogen storage investors are exposed.
The podcast can be found on their website.
In order for a hydrogen economy to be established several key factors must be addressed including efficient and decarbonized production adequate transportation infrastructure and the deployment of suitable hydrogen storage facilities. However hydrogen presents unique challenges when it comes to storage and handling. Due to its extremely low volumetric energy density under ambient conditions hydrogen cannot be efficiently or economically stored without undergoing compression liquefaction or conversion into other more manageable substances.
At present there exist several hydrogen storage solutions at different levels of technology market and commercial readiness each with varying applications depending on specific circumstances.
Additionally the podcast explores the primary barriers that hinder investment in hydrogen storage and the essential components of a viable business model that can address the primary risks to which potential hydrogen storage investors are exposed.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Multi-Objective Optimization for Solar-Hydrogen-Battery-Integrated Electric Vehicle Charging Stations with Energy Exchange
Oct 2023
Publication
The importance of electric vehicle charging stations (EVCS) is increasing as electric vehicles (EV) become more widely used. EVCS with multiple low-carbon energy sources can promote sustainable energy development. This paper presents an optimization methodology for direct energy exchange between multi-geographic dispersed EVCSs in London UK. The charging stations (CSs) incorporate solar panels hydrogen battery energy storage systems and grids to support their operations. EVs are used to allow the energy exchange of charging stations. The objective function of the solar-hydrogen-battery storage electric vehicle charging station (SHS-EVCS) includes the minimization of both capital and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs as well as the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The system constraints encompass the power output limits of individual components and the need to maintain a power balance between the SHS-EVCSs and the EV charging demand. To evaluate and compare the proposed SHS-EVCSs two multi-objective optimization algorithms namely the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II) and the Multi-objective Evolutionary Algorithm Based on Decomposition (MOEA/D) are employed. The findings indicate that NSGA-II outperforms MOEA/D in terms of achieving higher-quality solutions. During the optimization process various factors are considered including the sizing of solar panels and hydrogen storage tanks the capacity of electric vehicle chargers and the volume of energy exchanged between the two stations. The application of the optimized SHS-EVCSs results in substantial cost savings thereby emphasizing the practical benefits of the proposed approach.
Prediction of Transient Hydrogen Flow of Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyzer Using Artificial Neural Network
Aug 2023
Publication
A proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer is fed with water and powered by electric power to electrochemically produce hydrogen at low operating temperatures and emits oxygen as a by-product. Due to the complex nature of the performance of PEM electrolyzers the application of an artificial neural network (ANN) is capable of predicting its dynamic characteristics. A handful of studies have examined and explored ANN in the prediction of the transient characteristics of PEM electrolyzers. This research explores the estimation of the transient behavior of a PEM electrolyzer stack under various operational conditions. Input variables in this study include stack current oxygen pressure hydrogen pressure and stack temperature. ANN models using three differing learning algorithms and time delay structures estimated the hydrogen mass flow rate which had transient behavior from 0 to 1 kg/h and forecasted better with a higher count (>5) of hidden layer neurons. A coefficient of determination of 0.84 and a mean squared error of less than 0.005 were recorded. The best-fitting model to predict the dynamic behavior of the hydrogen mass flow rate was an ANN model using the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm with 40 neurons that had a coefficient of determination of 0.90 and a mean squared error of 0.00337. In conclusion optimally fit models of hydrogen flow from PEM electrolyzers utilizing artificial neural networks were developed. Such models are useful in establishing an agile flow control system for the electrolyzer system to help decrease power consumption and increase efficiency in hydrogen generation.
Life Cycle Assessment of Waste-to-hydrogen Systems for Fuel Cell Electric Buses in Glasgow, Scotland
Jun 2022
Publication
Waste-to-hydrogen (WtH) technologies are proposed as a dual-purpose method for simultaneous non-fossil-fuel based hydrogen production and sustainable waste management. This work applied the life cycle assessment approach to evaluate the carbon saving potential of two main WtH technologies (gasification and fermentation) in comparison to the conventional hydrogen production method of steam methane reforming (SMR) powering fuel cell electric buses in Glasgow. It was shown that WtH technologies could reduce CO2-eq emissions per kg H2 by 50–69% as compared to SMR. Gasification treating municipal solid waste and waste wood had global warming potentials of 4.99 and 4.11 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 respectively which were lower than dark fermentation treating wet waste at 6.6 kg CO2-eq/kg H2 and combined dark and photo fermentation at 6.4 kg CO2-eq/kg H2. The distance emissions of WtH-based fuel cell electric bus scenarios were 0.33–0.44 kg CO2-eq/km as compared to 0.89 kg CO2-eq/km for the SMR-based scenario.
Hydrogen Net Zero Investment Roadmap: Leading the Way to Net Zero
Apr 2023
Publication
This net zero investment roadmap summarises government’s hydrogen policies and available investment opportunities.
OIES Podcast - Hydrogen Financing
Jan 2023
Publication
In this Podcast David Ledesma discusses with Stephen Craen Visiting Research Fellow OIES the challenges facing the financing of future hydrogen projects as it is expected that a substantial amount of capital will need to be invested in green hydrogen production to meet the 2050 net zero targets. Based around an ‘Archetype’ world scale hydrogen export project where 1 GW solar power is used to make green hydrogen which is converted to 250000 tpa green ammonia for export with a capital cost in the region of USD 2 billion the podcast discusses how ‘efficient financing’ can make an important contribution to minimising cost and making projects cost competitive. Stephen Craen argues that lenders and investors will look to precedents when assessing the nascent green hydrogen sector and the foremost will be LNG and offshore wind which both represent large-scale technically complex projects. Commercial structures of the green hydrogen business are expected to borrow concepts from offshore wind projects particularly in relation to price but also from LNG where this is relevant such as take-or-pay contracts. In this podcast we discuss the key issues that will need to be addressed to make a green hydrogen export project bankable concluding that commercial debt from either commercial banks or project bonds can help create competition.
The podcast can be found on their website.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Technology Roadmap for Hydrogen-fuelled Transportation in the UK
Apr 2023
Publication
Transportation is the sector responsible for the largest greenhouse gas emission in the UK. To mitigate its impact on the environment and move towards net-zero emissions by 2050 hydrogen-fuelled transportation has been explored through research and development as well as trials. This article presents an overview of relevant technologies and issues that challenge the supply use and marketability of hydrogen for transportation application in the UK covering on-road aviation maritime and rail transportation modes. The current development statutes of the different transportation modes were reviewed and compared highlighting similarities and differences in fuel cells internal combustion engines storage technologies supply chains and refuelling characteristics. In addition common and specific future research needs in the short to long term for the different transportation modes were suggested. The findings showed the potential of using hydrogen in all transportation modes although each sector faces different challenges and requires future improvements in performance and cost development of innovative designs refuelling stations standards and codes regulations and policies to support the advancement of the use of hydrogen.
Modelling of Hydrogen Blending into the UK Natural Gas Network Driven by a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell for Electricity and District Heating System
Aug 2023
Publication
A thorough investigation of the thermodynamics and economic performance of a cogeneration system based on solid oxide fuel cells that provides heat and power to homes has been carried out in this study. Additionally different percentages of green hydrogen have been blended with natural gas to examine the techno-economic performance of the suggested cogeneration system. The energy and exergy efficiency of the system rises steadily as the hydrogen blending percentage rises from 0% to 20% then slightly drops at 50% H2 blending and then rises steadily again until 100% H2 supply. The system’s minimal levelised cost of energy was calculated to be 4.64 £/kWh for 100% H2. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model was also used to further train a sizable quantity of data that was received from the simulation model. Heat power and levelised cost of energy estimates using the ANN model were found to be extremely accurate with coefficients of determination of 0.99918 0.99999 and 0.99888 respectively.
The Role of Hydrogen and Batteries in Delivering Net Zero in the UK by 2050
Apr 2023
Publication
This report presents an analysis of how hydrogen and battery technologies are likely to be utilised in different sectors within the UK including transportation manufacturing the built environment and power. In particular the report compares the use of hydrogen and battery technology across these sectors. In addition it evaluates where these technologies will be in competition where one technology will dominate and where a combination of the two may be used. This sector analysis draws on DNV’s knowledge and experience within both the battery and hydrogen industries along with a review of studies available in the public domain. The analysis has been incorporated into DNV’s Energy Transition Outlook model an integrated system-dynamics simulation model covering the energy system which provides an independent view of the energy outlook from now until 2050. The modelling which includes data on costs demand supply policy population and economic indicators enables the non-linear interdependencies between different parameters to be considered so that decisions made in one sector influence the decision made in another.
Two-Layer Optimization Planning Model for Integrated Energy Systems in Hydrogen Refueling Original Station
May 2023
Publication
With the aggravation of global environmental pollution problems and the need for energy restructuring hydrogen energy as a highly clean resource has gradually become a hot spot for research in countries around the world. Facing the requirement of distributed hydrogen in refueling the original station for hydrogen transportation and other usage this paper proposes a comprehensive energy system planning model for hydrogen refueling stations to obtain the necessary devices construction the devices’ capacity decisions and the optimal operation behaviors of each device. Comparing to traditional single hydrogen producing technics in the traditional planning model the proposed model in this paper integrates both water-electrolysis-based and methanol-based manufacturing technics. A two-level optimization model is designed for this comprehensive system. The result of the numerical study shows that the proposed model can achieve a better optimal solution for distributed hydrogen production. Also it considers the single producing situation when price of one primary resource is sufficient higher than the other.
Modelling of Hydrogen-blended Dual-fuel Combustion using Flamelet-generated Manifold and Preferential Diffusion Effects
Oct 2022
Publication
In the present study Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes simulations together with a novel flamelet generated manifold (FGM) hybrid combustion model incorporating preferential diffusion effects is utilised for the investigation of a hydrogen-blended diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel engine combustion process with high hydrogen energy share. The FGM hybrid combustion model was developed by coupling laminar flamelet databases obtained from diffusion flamelets and premixed flamelets. The model employed three control variables namely mixture fraction reaction progress variable and enthalpy. The preferential diffusion effects were included in the laminar flamelet calculations and in the diffusion terms in the transport equations of the control variables. The resulting model is then validated against an experimental diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel combustion engine. The results show that the FGM hybrid combustion model incorporating preferential diffusion effects in the flame chemistry and transport equations yields better predictions with good accuracy for the in-cylinder characteristics. The inclusion of preferential diffusion effects in the flame chemistry and transport equations was found to predict well several characteristics of the diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel combustion process: 1) ignition delay 2) start and end of combustion 3) faster flame propagation and quicker burning rate of hydrogen 4) high temperature combustion due to highly reactive nature of hydrogen radicals 5) peak values of the heat release rate due to high temperature combustion of the partially premixed pilot fuel spray with entrained hydrogen/air and then background hydrogen-air premixed mixture. The comparison between diesel-hydrogen dual-fuel combustion and diesel only combustion shows early start of combustion longer ignition delay time higher flame temperature and NOx emissions for dual-fuel combustion compared to diesel only combustion.
EU Decarbonization under Geopolitical Pressure: Changing Paradigms and Implications for Energy and Climate Policy
Mar 2023
Publication
This paper aims to assess the impact of EU energy and climate policy as a response to Russia’s war in Ukraine on the EU decarbonization enterprise. It showcases how the Russian invasion was a crunch point that forced the EU to abandon its liberal market dogma and embrace in practice an open strategic autonomy approach. This led to an updated energy and climate policy with significant changes underpinning its main pillars interdependence diversification and the focus of market regulation and build-up. The reversal of enforced interdependence with Russia and the legislative barrage to support and build-up a domestic clean energy market unlocks significant emission reduction potential with measures targeting energy efficiency solar wind and hydrogen development; an urban renewable revolution and electricity and carbon market reforms standing out. Such positive decarbonization effects however are weakened by source and fuel diversification moves that extend to coal and shale gas especially when leading to an infrastructure build-up and locking-in gas use in the mid-term. Despite these caveats the analysis overall vindicates the hypothesis that geopolitics constitutes a facilitator and accelerator of EU energy transition.
Fuel Cell Products for Sustainable Transportation and Stationary Power Generation: Review on Market Perspective
Mar 2023
Publication
The present day energy supply scenario is unsustainable and the transition towards a more environmentally friendly energy supply system of the future is inevitable. Hydrogen is a potential fuel that is capable of assisting with this transition. Certain technological advancements and design challenges associated with hydrogen generation and fuel cell technologies are discussed in this review. The commercialization of hydrogen-based technologies is closely associated with the development of the fuel cell industry. The evolution of fuel cell electric vehicles and fuel cell-based stationary power generation products in the market are discussed. Furthermore the opportunities and threats associated with the market diffusion of these products certain policy implications and roadmaps of major economies associated with this hydrogen transition are discussed in this review.
A Technical Evaluation to Analyse of Potential Repurposing of Submarine Pipelines for Hydrogen and CCS Using Survival Analysis
Oct 2022
Publication
The UK oil and gas sector is mature and a combination of a dwindling resource base and a move towards decarbonisation has led to lower investments and an increasing decommissioning bill. Many existing offshore assets are in the vicinity of potential renewable energy developments or low-carbon facilities. We propose a technical evaluation process to understand whether pipelines might be repurposed to reduce the costs of low-carbon energy investment and oil decommissioning. We identify survival analysis as an effective method to investigate the potential of pipelines repurposing based on historical failure records as it deals with acceptable levels of data gaps and does not require associated field costs for detailed inspection. It provides a close estimate of the anticipated remaining life when compared to feasibility studies. We use survival analysis to examine several repurposing case studies for low-carbon investments. It also demonstrates that several pipeline systems have the potential to operate safely beyond their design life. Detailed records of failure will allow for further development of this methodology in the future.
The Role of Hydrogen for Deep Decarbonization of Energy Systems: A Chilean Case Study
Mar 2023
Publication
In this paper we implement a long-term multi-sectoral energy planning model to evaluate the role of green hydrogen in the energy mix of Chile a country with a high renewable potential under stringent emission reduction objectives in 2050. Our results show that green hydrogen is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly route especially for hard-to-abate sectors such as interprovincial and freight transport. They also suggest a strong synergy of hydrogen with electricity generation from renewable sources. Our numerical simulations show that Chile should (i) start immediately to develop hydrogen production through electrolyzers all along the country (ii) keep investing in wind and solar generation capacities ensuring a low cost hydrogen production and reinforce the power transmission grid to allow nodal hydrogen production (iii) foster the use of electric mobility for cars and local buses and of hydrogen for long-haul trucks and interprovincial buses and (iv) develop seasonal hydrogen storage and hydrogen cells to be exploited for electricity supply especially for the most stringent emission reduction objectives.
Mechanistic Evaluation of the Reservoir Engineering Performance for the Underground Hydrogen Storage in a Deep North Sea Aquifer
Jul 2023
Publication
Underground hydrogen storage (UHS) in aquifers salt caverns and depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs allows for the storage of larger volumes of H2 compared to surface storage in vessels. In this work we investigate the impact of aquifer-related mechanisms and parameters on the performance of UHS in an associated North Sea aquifer using 3D numerical compositional simulations. Simulation results revealed that the aquifer's permeability heterogeneity has a significant impact on the H2 recovery efficiency where a more homogenous rock would lead to improved H2 productivity. The inclusion of relative permeability hysteresis resulted in a drop in the H2 injectivity and recovery due to H2 discontinuity inside the aquifer which leads to residual H2 during the withdrawal periods. In contrast the effects of hydrogen solubility and hydrogen diffusion were negligible when studied each in isolation from other factors. Hence it is essential to properly account for hysteresis and heterogeneity when evaluating UHS in aquifers.
Cushion Gas in Hydrogen Storage—A Costly CAPEX or a Valuable Resource for Energy Crises?
Dec 2022
Publication
The geological storage of hydrogen is a seasonal energy storage solution and the storage capacity of saline aquifers is most appropriately defined by quantifying the amount of hydrogen that can be injected and reproduced over a relevant time period. Cushion gas stored in the reservoir to support the production of the working gas is a CAPEX which should be reduced to decrease implementation cost for gas storage. The cushion gas to working gas ratio provides a sufficiently accurate reflection of the storage efficiency with higher ratios equating to larger initial investments. This paper investigates how technical measures such as well configurations and adjustments to the operational size and schedule can reduce this ratio and the outcomes can inform optimisation strategies for hydrogen storage operations. Using a simplified open saline aquifer reservoir model hydrogen storage is simulated with a single injection and production well. The results show that the injection process is more sensitive to technical measures than the production process; a shorter perforation and a smaller well diameter increases the required cushion gas for the injection process but has little impact on the production. If the storage operation capacity is expanded and the working gas volume increased the required cushion gas to working gas ratio increases for injection reducing the efficiency of the injection process. When the reservoir pressure has more time to equilibrate less cushion gas is required. It is shown that cushion gas plays an important role in storage operations and that the tested optimisation strategies impart only minor effects on the production process however there is significant need for careful optimisation of the injection process. It is suggested that the recoverable part of the cushion gas could be seen as a strategic gas reserve which can be produced during an energy crisis. In this scenario the recoverable cushion gas could be owned by the state and the upfront costs for gas storage to the operator would be reduced making the implementation of more gas storage and the onset of hydrogen storage more attractive to investors.
Hydrogen Champion Report: Recommendations to Government and Industry to Accelerate the Development of the UK Hydrogen Economy
Mar 2023
Publication
The UK Hydrogen Champion engaged with stakeholders across the hydrogen value chain between July and December 2022.<br/>This report summarises their findings and makes recommendations for government and industry to accelerate the growth of the hydrogen sector.
Assessing the Sustainability of Liquid Hydrogen for Future Hypersonic Aerospace Flight
Dec 2022
Publication
This study explored the applications of liquid hydrogen (LH2 ) in aerospace projects followed by an investigation into the efficiency of ramjets scramjets and turbojets for hypersonic flight and the impact of grey blue and green hydrogen as an alternative to JP-7 and JP-8 (kerosene fuel). The advantage of LH2 as a propellant in the space sector has emerged from the relatively high energy density of hydrogen per unit volume enabling it to store more energy compared to conventional fuels. Hydrogen also has the potential to decarbonise space flight as combustion of LH2 fuel produces zero carbon emissions. However hydrogen is commonly found in hydrocarbons and water and thus it needs to be extracted from these molecular compounds before use. Only by considering the entire lifecycle of LH2 including the production phase can its sustainability be understood. The results of this study compared the predicted Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) emissions of the production of LH2 using grey blue and green hydrogen for 2030 with conventional fuel (JP-7 and JP-8) and revealed that the total carbon emissions over the lifecycle of LH2 were greater than kerosene-derived fuels.
Putting Bioenergy With Carbon Capture and Storage in a Spatial Context: What Should Go Where?
Mar 2022
Publication
This paper explores the implications of siting a bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) facility to carbon emission performances for three case-study supply chains using the Carbon Navigation System (CNS) model. The three case-study supply chains are a wheat straw derived BECCS-power a municipal solid waste derived BECCS-waste-to-energy and a sawmill residue derived BECCS-hydrogen. A BECCS facility needs to be carefully sited taking into consideration its local low carbon infrastructure available biomass and geography for successful deployment and achieving a favorable net-negative carbon balance. On average across the three supply chains a 10 km shift in the siting of the BECCS facility results in an 8.6–13.1% increase in spatially explicit supply chain emissions. BECCS facilities producing low purity CO2 at high yields have lower spatial emissions when located within the industrial clusters while those producing high purity CO2 at low yields perform better outside the clusters. A map is also generated identifying which of the three modeled supply chains delivers the lowest spatially explicit supply chain emission options for any given area of the UK at a 1 MtCO2/yr capture scale.
Energy From Waste and the Circular Economy
Jul 2020
Publication
The Energy Research Accelerator (ERA) and the Birmingham Energy Institute have launched a policy commission to examine the state of play barriers challenges and opportunities for Energy from Waste (EfW) to form part of the regional energy circular economy in the Midlands. This policy commission explores the case for regional investment whilst helping shape the regional local government and industry thinking surrounding critical issues such as fuel poverty and poor air quality.
The Challenge
Tackling climate change is one of the most pressing issues of our time. To follow the path for limiting global warming below 2ᵒC set out in the 2015 Paris agreement requires significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The UK has committed to bring all greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050 requiring action at a local regional and national level to transition to a zero carbon economy.
To decarbonise and decentralise the UK’s energy system we must implement technologies that provide energy supply solutions across the UK.
In the Midlands many industrial sites are unable to access supply of affordable clean and reliable energy to meet their demands.
Energy from Waste (EfW) could offer a solution to the Midlands based industrial sites. EfW sites provide affordable secure energy supply solutions that form part of a developing circular economy. EfW reduces our reliance on landfills and obtains the maximum value from our waste streams. There are a number of merging technologies that could potentially play an important role which treats waste as a resource properly integrated into an energy and transport system and fully respects the potential of linking in the circular economy.
Investment into EfW infrastructure in the region could lead to job creation and economic growth and could help provide inward investment needed to redevelop old industrial sites and retiring power stations. However for EfW to be part of a net-zero energy system (either in transition or long-term) technologies and processes are needed that reduce the current carbon emissions burden.
EfW could play a significant role in the net zero carbon transition in the Midlands supplying heat power and green fuels and solve other problems - the region has some of the highest levels of energy/fuel poverty and poor air quality in the UK. The policy commission will help shape the regional local government and industry thinking surrounding this important topic.
Report Recommendations
Recovery Resource Cluster
The EfW policy commission proposes three major areas where it believes that government investment would be highly beneficial
The National Centre for the Circular Economy would analyse material flows throughout the economy down to regional and local levels and develop deep expertise in recycling and EfW technologies. The CCE would also provide expert guidance and support for local authorities as they develop local or regional strategies and planning frameworks.
The R&D Grand Challenge aims to make big advances in small-scale carbon capture technologies in order to turn 100% of CO2 produced through the process of converting waste to energy into useful products. This is very important for areas such as the Midlands which are remoted from depleted oil and gas reservoirs.
The Challenge
Tackling climate change is one of the most pressing issues of our time. To follow the path for limiting global warming below 2ᵒC set out in the 2015 Paris agreement requires significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The UK has committed to bring all greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050 requiring action at a local regional and national level to transition to a zero carbon economy.
To decarbonise and decentralise the UK’s energy system we must implement technologies that provide energy supply solutions across the UK.
In the Midlands many industrial sites are unable to access supply of affordable clean and reliable energy to meet their demands.
Energy from Waste (EfW) could offer a solution to the Midlands based industrial sites. EfW sites provide affordable secure energy supply solutions that form part of a developing circular economy. EfW reduces our reliance on landfills and obtains the maximum value from our waste streams. There are a number of merging technologies that could potentially play an important role which treats waste as a resource properly integrated into an energy and transport system and fully respects the potential of linking in the circular economy.
Investment into EfW infrastructure in the region could lead to job creation and economic growth and could help provide inward investment needed to redevelop old industrial sites and retiring power stations. However for EfW to be part of a net-zero energy system (either in transition or long-term) technologies and processes are needed that reduce the current carbon emissions burden.
EfW could play a significant role in the net zero carbon transition in the Midlands supplying heat power and green fuels and solve other problems - the region has some of the highest levels of energy/fuel poverty and poor air quality in the UK. The policy commission will help shape the regional local government and industry thinking surrounding this important topic.
Report Recommendations
Recovery Resource Cluster
The EfW policy commission proposes three major areas where it believes that government investment would be highly beneficial
- Building a network of local and regional Resource Recovery Clusters
- Creating a National Centre for the Circular Economy
- Launching an R&D Grand Challenge to develop small-scale circular carbon capture technologies.
The National Centre for the Circular Economy would analyse material flows throughout the economy down to regional and local levels and develop deep expertise in recycling and EfW technologies. The CCE would also provide expert guidance and support for local authorities as they develop local or regional strategies and planning frameworks.
The R&D Grand Challenge aims to make big advances in small-scale carbon capture technologies in order to turn 100% of CO2 produced through the process of converting waste to energy into useful products. This is very important for areas such as the Midlands which are remoted from depleted oil and gas reservoirs.
Application of Pipeline QRA Methodologies to Hydrogen Pipelines in Support of the Transition to a Decarbonised Future
Sep 2021
Publication
Hydrogen is expected to play a key role in the decarbonised future of energy. For hydrogen distribution pipelines are seen as the main method for mass transport of hydrogen gas. To support the evaluation of risk related to hydrogen pipelines a revised QRA methodology is presented based on currently available and industry accepted guidance related to natural gas. The QRA approach is primarily taken from HSE UK’s MISHAP methodology [1]. The base methodology is reviewed and modifications suggested to adapt it for use with hydrogen gas transport. Compared to natural gas it was found that the escape distances for hydrogen (based on the degree of heat flux) were lower. However as for the overall risk for both individual and societal the case with hydrogen was more severe close to the pipeline. This was driven by the increased ignition probability of hydrogen. The approach may be used as part of the review and appraisal process of hydrogen projects
Combined Ammonia Recovery and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Use at Wastewater Treatment Plants for Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emission Improvements
Feb 2019
Publication
Current standard practice at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) involves the recycling of digestate liquor produced from the anaerobic digestion of sludge back into the treatment process. However a significant amount of energy is required to enable biological breakdown of ammonia present in the liquor. This biological processing also results in the emission of damaging quantities of greenhouse gases making diversion of liquor and recovery of ammonia a noteworthy option for improving the sustainability of wastewater treatment. This study presents a novel process which combines ammonia recovery from diverted digestate liquor for use (alongside biomethane) in a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) system for implementation at WWTPs. Aspen Plus V.8.8 and numerical steady state models have been developed using data from a WWTP in West Yorkshire (UK) as a reference facility (750000p.e.). Aspen Plus simulations demonstrate an ability to recover 82% of ammoniacal nitrogen present in digestate liquor produced at the WWTP. The recovery process uses a series of stripping absorption and flash separation units where water is recovered alongside ammonia. This facilitates effective internal steam methane as a case of study has the potential to make significant impacts energetically and environmentally; findings suggest the treatment facility could transform from a net consumer of electricity to a net producer. The SOFC has been demonstrated to run at an electrical efficiency of 48% with NH3 contributing 4.6% of its power output. It has also been demonstrated that 3.5 kg CO2e per person served by the WWTP could be mitigated a year due to a combination of emissions savings by diversion of ammonia from biological processing and lifecycle emissions associated with the lack of reliance on grid electricity.
Performance of Hydrogen Storage Tanks of Type IV in a Fire: Effect of the State of Charge
Sep 2021
Publication
The use of hydrogen storage tanks at 100% of nominal working pressure (NWP) is expected only after refuelling. Driving between refuellings is characterised by the state of charge SoC <100%. There is experimental evidence that Type IV tanks tested in a fire at initial pressures below 1/3 NWP leaked without rupture. This paper aims at understanding this phenomenon. The numerical research has demonstrated that the heat transfer from fire through the composite overwrap at storage pressures below NWP/3 is sufficient to melt the polymer liner. This melting initiates hydrogen microleaks through the composite before it loses the load-bearing ability. The fire-resistance rating (FRR) is defined as the time to rupture in a fire of a tank without or with blocked thermally activated pressure relief device. The dependence of a FRR on the SoC is demonstrated for the tanks with defined material properties and volumes in the range of 36–244 L. A composite wall thickness variation is shown to cause a safety issue by reducing the tank’s FRR and is suggested to be addressed by tank manufacturers and OEMs. The effect of a tank’s burst pressure ratio on the FRR is investigated. Thermal parameters of the composite wall i.e. decomposition heat and temperatures are shown in simulations of a tank failure in a fire to play an important role in its FRR.
OIES Podcast: Global Trade of Hydrogen: What is the Best Way to Transfer Hydrogen Over Long Distances?
Aug 2022
Publication
In this podcast David Ledesma talks with Rahmat Poudineh Senior Research Fellow and Aliaksei Patonia Research Fellow on issues and options with respect to long distance transportation of the hydrogen.
Hydrogen currently is mainly a local or regional commodity. If hydrogen is to become a truly global-traded commodity it needs to be transported over long transoceanic distances in an economical way. However unlike natural gas shipping compressed or liquefied hydrogen over long distances is very inefficient and expensive. At the same time hydrogen can be converted into multiple carriers with a higher energy density and higher transport capacity such as liquid ammonia toluene/methylcyclohexane (MCH) or methanol. These chemicals have their own advantages and drawbacks and their techno-economic characteristics in terms of boil-off gas and thermodynamic and conversion losses play a key role in the efficiency of transoceanic transportation of the hydrogen.
On the other hand apart from techno-economic features there are other factors to consider for long distance transportation of the hydrogen via its careers. Here such issues as safety public acceptance as well as legal and regulatory constraints may come into play. Another factor is the availability of the industries and infrastructures already developed around any of possible hydrogen carriers as well as their potential industrial applicability beyond hydrogen. Finally technological progress in other decarbonization applications and most importantly full commercialization of CCUS solutions is likely to dramatically change the approach towards long distance hydrogen transportation.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Hydrogen currently is mainly a local or regional commodity. If hydrogen is to become a truly global-traded commodity it needs to be transported over long transoceanic distances in an economical way. However unlike natural gas shipping compressed or liquefied hydrogen over long distances is very inefficient and expensive. At the same time hydrogen can be converted into multiple carriers with a higher energy density and higher transport capacity such as liquid ammonia toluene/methylcyclohexane (MCH) or methanol. These chemicals have their own advantages and drawbacks and their techno-economic characteristics in terms of boil-off gas and thermodynamic and conversion losses play a key role in the efficiency of transoceanic transportation of the hydrogen.
On the other hand apart from techno-economic features there are other factors to consider for long distance transportation of the hydrogen via its careers. Here such issues as safety public acceptance as well as legal and regulatory constraints may come into play. Another factor is the availability of the industries and infrastructures already developed around any of possible hydrogen carriers as well as their potential industrial applicability beyond hydrogen. Finally technological progress in other decarbonization applications and most importantly full commercialization of CCUS solutions is likely to dramatically change the approach towards long distance hydrogen transportation.
The podcast can be found on their website.
A Brief History of Process Safety Management
Sep 2021
Publication
Common root causes are often to be found in many if not most process safety incidents. Whilst largescale events are relatively rare such events can have devastating consequences. The subsequent investigations often uncover that the risks are rarely visible the direct causes are often hidden and that a ‘normalization of deviation’ is a common human characteristic. Process Safety Management (PSM) builds on the valuable lessons learned from past incidents to help prevent future recurrences. An understanding of how PSM originated and has evolved as a discipline over the past 200 years can be instructive when considering the safety implications of emerging technologies. An example is hydrogen production where risks must be effectively identified mitigated and addressed to provide safe production transportation storage and use .
Hydrogen Wide Area Monitoring of LH2 Releases at HSE for the PRESLHY Project
Sep 2021
Publication
The characterization of liquid hydrogen (LH2) releases has been identified as an international research priority to facilitate the safe use of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Empirical field measurements such as those afforded by Hydrogen Wide Area Monitoring can elucidate the behavior of LH2 releases which can then be used to support and validate dispersion models. Hydrogen Wide Area Monitoring can be defined as the quantitative three-dimensional spatial and temporal profiling of planned or unintentional hydrogen releases. The NREL Sensor Laboratory developed a Hydrogen Wide Area Monitor (HyWAM) based upon a distributed array of hydrogen sensors. The NREL Sensor Laboratory and the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) formally committed to collaborate on profiling GH2 and LH2 releases which allowed for the integration of the NREL HyWAM into the HSE LH2 release behavior investigation supported by the FCH JU Prenormative Research for the Safe Use of Liquid Hydrogen (PRESLHY) program. A HyWAM system was deployed consisting of 32 hydrogen measurement points and co-located temperature sensors distributed downstream of the LH2 release apparatus developed by HSE. In addition the HyWAM deployment was supported by proximal wind and weather monitors. In a separate presentation at this conference “HSE Experimental Summary for the Characterisation Dispersion and Electrostatic Hazards of LH2 for the PRESLHY Project” HSE researchers summarize the experimental apparatus and protocols utilized in the HSE LH2 releases that were performed under the auspices of PRESLHY. As a supplement to the HSE presentation this presentation will focus on the spatial and temporal behavior LH2 releases as measured by the NREL HyWAM. Correlations to ambient conditions such as wind speed and direction plume temperature and hydrogen concentrations will be discussed in addition to the design and performance of the NREL HyWAM and its potential for improving hydrogen facility safety.
Approaches and Methods to Demonstrate Repurposing of the UK's Local Transmission System (LTS) Pipelines for Transportation of Hydrogen
Sep 2021
Publication
Hydrogen has the potential as an energy solution to contribute to decarbonisation targets as it has the capability to deliver low-carbon energy at the scale required. For this to be realised the suitability of the existing natural gas pipeline networks for transporting hydrogen must be established. The current paper describes a feasibility study that was undertaken to assess the potential for repurposing the UK’s Local Transmission System (LTS) natural gas pipelines for hydrogen service. The analysis focused on SGN’s network which includes 3000 km of LTS pipelines in Scotland and the south of England. The characteristics of the LTS pipelines in terms of materials of construction and operation were first evaluated. This analysis showed that a significant percentage of SGN’s LTS network consists of lower strength grades of steel pipeline that operate at low stresses which are factors conducive to a pipeline’s suitability for hydrogen service. An assessment was also made of where existing approaches in pipeline operation may require modifications for hydrogen. The effects of changes in mechanical properties of steel pipelines on integrity and lifetime as a result of potential hydrogen degradation were demonstrated using fitness-for-purpose analysis. A review of pipeline risk assessment and Land-Use Planning (LUP) zone calculations for hydrogen was undertaken to identify any required changes. Case studies on selected sections of the LTS pipeline were then carried out to illustrate the potential changes to LUP zones. The work concluded with a summary of identified gaps that require addressing to ensure safe pipeline repurposing for hydrogen which cover materials performance inspection risk assessment land use planning and procedures.
Water Electrolysis: From Textbook Knowledge to the Latest Scientific Strategies and Industrial Developments
May 2022
Publication
Replacing fossil fuels with energy sources and carriers that are sustainable environmentally benign and affordable is amongst the most pressing challenges for future socio-economic development. To that goal hydrogen is presumed to be the most promising energy carrier. Electrocatalytic water splitting if driven by green electricity would provide hydrogen with minimal CO2 footprint. The viability of water electrolysis still hinges on the availability of durable earth-abundant electrocatalyst materials and the overall process efficiency. This review spans from the fundamentals of electrocatalytically initiated water splitting to the very latest scientific findings from university and institutional research also covering specifications and special features of the current industrial processes and those processes currently being tested in large-scale applications. Recently developed strategies are described for the optimisation and discovery of active and durable materials for electrodes that ever-increasingly harness first principles calculations and machine learning. In addition a technoeconomic analysis of water electrolysis is included that allows an assessment of the extent to which a large-scale implementation of water splitting can help to combat climate change. This review article is intended to cross-pollinate and strengthen efforts from fundamental understanding to technical implementation and to improve the ‘junctions’ between the field’s physical chemists materials scientists and engineers as well as stimulate much-needed exchange among these groups on challenges encountered in the different domains.
Towards Net-zero Compatible Hydrogen from Steam Reformation - Techno-economic Analysis of Process Design Options
Dec 2022
Publication
Increased consumption of low-carbon hydrogen is prominent in the decarbonisation strategies of many jurisdictions. Yet prior studies assessing the current most prevalent production method steam reformation of natural gas (SRNG) have not sufficiently evaluated how process design decisions affect life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This techno-economic case study assesses cradle-to-gate emissions of hydrogen produced from SRNG with CO2 capture and storage (CCS) in British Columbia Canada. Four process configurations with amine-based CCS using existing technology and novel process designs are evaluated. We find that cradle-to-gate GHG emission intensity ranges from 0.7 to 2.7 kgCO2e/kgH2 – significantly lower than previous studies of SRNG with CCS and similar to the range of published estimates for hydrogen produced from renewable-powered electrolysis. The levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) in this study (US$1.1–1.3/kgH2) is significantly lower than published estimates for renewable-powered electrolysis.
Governing the UK’s Transition to Decarbonised Heating: Lessons from a Systematic Review of Past and Ongoing Heat Transitions
May 2020
Publication
According to the UK’s Committee on Climate Change the economically efficient achievement of Government’s legally-binding carbon-reduction target will require full decarbonisation of all heat in buildings and the decarbonisation of most industrial heat over the next 20 to 30 years (BEIS 2018). This goliath task is not unprecedented. Indeed the scale of this transition is similar to the UK’s former transition from coal to natural gas heating. Albeit the rate of transition away from natural gas will certainly need to be greater than the rate of the transition toward natural gas to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.<br/><br/>At present Government’s commitment stands in sharp contrast with its inaction on heat decarbonisation to date. Under pressure to progress this agenda Government has charged the Clean Heat Directorate with the task of outlining the process for determining the UK’s long-term heat policy framework to be published in the ‘Roadmap for policy on heat decarbonisation’ in the summer of 2020 (BEIS 2017). This report resulting from one of six EPSRC-funded secondments is designed to support early thinking on the roadmap by answering the research question: How can ‘Transitions’ research informs the roadmap for governing the UK’s heating transition?<br/><br/>‘Transitions’ research is an interdisciplinary field of study within the Social Sciences and Humanities that investigates the co-evolution of social and technological systems (such as the UK heating system) and the dynamics by which fundamental change in these systems occur. To investigate what insights this area of research may hold for the governance of the UK’s heat transition a systematic literature review was conducted focusing specifically on past and ongoing heat transitions across Europe.<br/><br/>The review uncovered learnings about the role of path dependency; power and politics; complexity; cross-sector interactions; multi-level governance; and intermediaries in shaping non-linear transitions toward renewable heat. This report illustrates each learning with real-world examples from case studies undertaken by Transitions researchers and concludes with a long list of policy and process-oriented governance recommendations for the UK Government.
Condensed Phase Explosions Involving Liquid Hydrogen
Sep 2021
Publication
Liquid hydrogen may have an important role in the storage and transportation of hydrogen energy. It may also provide the best option for some users of hydrogen energy notably the aviation sector. In the 1960’s liquid hydrogen spillages in open uncongested conditions sometimes produced violent condensed phase explosions as well as the familiar gas phase flash and sustained pool fire. Testing showed that burning mixtures of LH2 and solid oxygen/nitrogen readily transitioned to detonation for oxygen concentrations in the solid phase at or above 50%. Such explosive events have been observed in more recent research work on LH2 spillage and the pressure effects could be significant in some accident scenarios. There is a need to understand how solids are produced following spillage and what factors determine the level of oxygen enrichment. This paper describes the physical processes involved in the accumulation of solids during a horizontal discharge at ground level based on observations made in a recent HSE test that led to a condensed phase explosion. Areas where solids accumulated but remained in intimate contact with LH2 are identified. The paper also includes a thermodynamic and fluid mechanical analysis of the condensation process that includes the calculation of densities of mixtures of LH2 and air in different proportions. When the difference in flow speed between air and underlying LH2 is low a stable condensation layer can develop above the liquid where the temperature is just under the initial condensation point of air allowing sustained oxygen enrichment of condensate.
Techno-economic Assessment of a Hybrid Off-grid DC System for Combined Heat and Power Generation in Remote Islands
Mar 2019
Publication
Hybrid renewable energy systems that combine heat and electricity generation is an achievable option for remote areas where grid is uneconomical to extend. In this study a renewable-based system was designed to satisfy the electrical and thermal demands of a remote household in an off-grid Greek island. A hybrid DC system consisted of a combination of photovoltaic modules wind turbine electrolyzer-hydrogen tank fuel cell and batteries were analysed using HOMER Pro software. Based on the optimal obtained system it is found that such a system can satisfy both electrical and thermal load demand throughout the year in a reliable manner.
Energy Innovation Needs Assessment: Overview
Nov 2019
Publication
This project provides evidence to identify the key innovation needs across the UK’s energy system to inform the prioritisation of public sector investment in low-carbon innovation including any future phases of the Department for Business Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS) Energy Innovation1 Programme. The BEIS Energy Innovation Programme aims to accelerate the commercialisation of innovative clean energy technologies and processes into the 2020s and 2030s. The current Programme with a budget of £505 million from 2015-2021 consists of six themes and invests in smart systems industry & CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage) the built environment nuclear renewables and support for energy entrepreneurs and green financing.
Vivid Economics was contracted to lead a consortium with technical expertise in each of the Energy Innovation Needs Assessment (EINA) priority areas. The programme relied on evidence from a programme of workshops with over 180 participants energy system modelling and detailed technical advice. Partners include the Carbon Trust E4tech Imperial College London and Fraser-Nash. The Energy Systems Catapult (ESC) provided analytical evidence using their Energy System Modelling Environment (ESME) to support an early pre-screening of technologies.
Innovations have been prioritised where there is a strong case for UK Government investment. The prioritisation in this report is based on evidence of the potential benefits to the UK via a lower cost energy system and larger export markets. We also consider whether there is a need for UK Government intervention in addition to private and international efforts.
A distinctive feature of this project is its focus on innovation that benefits the whole energy system. Internationally there are other efforts attempting to answer the question of where to target resources to maximise benefits from innovation2. In selecting priorities we identify innovations that can unlock value across electricity heat transport sectors and the rest of the economy.
Vivid Economics was contracted to lead a consortium with technical expertise in each of the Energy Innovation Needs Assessment (EINA) priority areas. The programme relied on evidence from a programme of workshops with over 180 participants energy system modelling and detailed technical advice. Partners include the Carbon Trust E4tech Imperial College London and Fraser-Nash. The Energy Systems Catapult (ESC) provided analytical evidence using their Energy System Modelling Environment (ESME) to support an early pre-screening of technologies.
Innovations have been prioritised where there is a strong case for UK Government investment. The prioritisation in this report is based on evidence of the potential benefits to the UK via a lower cost energy system and larger export markets. We also consider whether there is a need for UK Government intervention in addition to private and international efforts.
A distinctive feature of this project is its focus on innovation that benefits the whole energy system. Internationally there are other efforts attempting to answer the question of where to target resources to maximise benefits from innovation2. In selecting priorities we identify innovations that can unlock value across electricity heat transport sectors and the rest of the economy.
Impact Assessment of Hydrogen on Transmission Pipeline BPDs in IGEM/TD/1
Jul 2021
Publication
As part of the LTS Futures HyTechnical project IGEM requested that DNV GL undertake an assessment of the possible impact of hydrogen transmission on BPDs to support the development of supplements to the existing suite of natural gas standards to accommodate the possible future use of hydrogen. The current state of knowledge of the behaviour of large scale high pressure hydrogen releases is limited in comparison with the considerable body of data from research and operational experience of natural gas but is adequate to undertake an impact assessment to take account of the different gas outflow and fire characteristics of 100% hydrogen vs. natural gas.<br/>Calculations of the BPDs for 100% hydrogen pipeline fires on an equivalent basis to those in IGEM/TD/1 for natural gas have been performed with a degree of confidence in the results and demonstrated that the equivalent BPDs for 100% hydrogen are approximately 10% smaller than for natural gas. The results are presented graphically in this report.<br/>However hydrogen introduces the potential for substantially higher overpressures than natural gas due to the higher flame speed and wider flammable limits if delayed ignition is a credible event. The overpressure estimates presented in this report are intended to be scoping calculations to put the likely overpressures into context. The results suggest that significant overpressures are possible at the BPDs but there is a lack of evidence to support the estimation of the overpressures following delayed ignition of a large turbulent hydrogen release in the open (in contrast to explosions in confined or congested regions) and there is a high degree of uncertainty in the predictions presented here. It is therefore recommended that large scale pipeline rupture experiments are performed similar to those undertaken previously for hydrogen natural gas and natural gas/hydrogen mixtures but with ignition engineered to take place after a short delay in order to measure the overpressures and provide the means to validate or refine the predictions made.<br/>The analysis has highlighted limitations in the original method of calculating BPDs in IGEM/TD/1 which reflects the techniques available at the time approximately 40 years ago. Since then understanding of the hazards from pipeline failures and the ability to model the consequences and predict the associated risks to people in the surrounding area have advanced very considerably facilitated by software tools and documented in standards such as IGEM/TD/2. These methods allow the highly transient nature of a high pressure gas pipeline rupture release to be modelled more accurately and for the thermal effects of fires on people and buildings to be calculated taking account of the time-varying thermal dose.<br/>For these reasons a simple comparison of the possible overpressure effects of delayed ignition of a 100% hydrogen release at the BPDs can be misleading and implies that the overpressure hazards could be more severe than those for fires which may not be the case. Example calculations have been performed for a representative pipeline case which indicate that using current methods the predicted thermal hazard distances for 100% hydrogen pipeline fires (house burning and escape for people) are substantially greater than those estimated for overpressures following delayed ignition for similar levels of vulnerability. This report addresses buried pipelines only – the potential for more severe explosion overpressure effects for hydrogen releases may be more significant for Above Ground Installations (AGIs) especially where congestion or confinement may be present. It is recommended that similar studies are conducted to quantify the effect of hydrogen conversion on the consequences and risks associated with hydrogen releases at AGIs.<br/>Finally it is stressed that the analysis in this report does not consider the relative risks for 100% hydrogen and the equivalent natural gas pipelines. There remain uncertainties in the failure frequencies for steel pipelines transporting hydrogen and particularly the probability of immediate and delayed ignition. The likelihood of delayed ignition of a large turbulent high pressure hydrogen gas pipeline rupture release may be very low due to the wider flammability limits and lower minimum ignition energy for hydrogen compared with natural gas. Additional research is currently ongoing or planned to address the gaps in knowledge for 100% hydrogen which should allow more robust comparisons of the relative risks to be made in the future.
Oxford Energy Podcast – Saudi Aramco’s Perspectives on Hydrogen: Opportunities and Challenges
Jun 2021
Publication
As the world’s largest integrated energy and chemicals company Saudi Aramco continues to invest in technologies and innovative business models to enable the sustainable use of hydrocarbon resources across the value chain. In this podcast David Ledesma discusses with Yasser Mufti Vice President Strategy & Market Analysis Saudi Aramco about Saudi Aramco’s perspectives on hydrogen its opportunities and challenges. This wide-ranging interview discusses Saudi Aramco’s investment in new technologies and the sustainable use of its hydrocarbon resources before addressing the role of hydrogen in achieving a low emissions economy possible business models and the barriers to achieving hydrogen’s growth. The podcast then moves on to discuss ammonia carbon capture utilisation and storage finishing up with a forward-looking perspective on the vision for Saudi Aramco asking how will the company look in 2050 and specifically whether it will still be a hydrocarbon company?
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
HydroGenerally - Episode 5: Hydrogen for Glass Production
May 2022
Publication
In this fifth episode Steffan Eldred and Neelam Mughal from Innovate UK KTN discuss how the glass industry is driving new hydrogen developments and research and explore the hydrogen transition opportunities and challenges in this sector alongside their special guest Rob Ireson Innovation and Partnerships Manager at Glass Futures Ltd.
The podcast can be found on their website
The podcast can be found on their website
Electrification Versus Hydrogen for UK Road Freight: Conclusions from a Systems Analysis of Transport Energy Transitions
Mar 2022
Publication
Collectively the UK investment in transport decarbonisation is greater than £27B from government for incentivising zero-emission vehicles as part of an urgent response to decarbonise the transport sector. The investments made must facilitate a transition to a long-term solution. The success relies on coordinating and testing the evolution of both the energy and transport systems this avoids the risk of unforeseen consequences in both systems and therefore de-risks investment Here we present a semiquantitative energy and transport system analysis for UK road freight focusing on two primary investment areas for nation-wide decarbonisation namely electrification and hydrogen propulsion. Our study assembles and assesses the potential roadblocks of these energy systems into a concise record and considers the infrastructure in relation to all other components within the energy system. It highlights that for system-wide success and resilience a hydrogen system must overcome hydrogen production and distribution barriers whereas an electric system needs to optimise storage solutions and charging facilities. Without cohesive co-evolving energy networks the planning and operational modelling of transport decarbonisation may fall short of meaningful real-world results. A developed understanding of the dependencies between the energy and transport systems is a necessary step in the development of meaningful operational transport models that could de-risk investment in both the energy and transport systems.
Solar Energy: Applications, Trends Analysis, Bibliometric Analysis and Research Contribution to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Jan 2023
Publication
Over the past decade energy demand has witnessed a drastic increase mainly due to huge development in the industry sector and growing populations. This has led to the global utilization of renewable energy resources and technologies to meet this high demand as fossil fuels are bound to end and are causing harm to the environment. Solar PV (photovoltaic) systems are a renewable energy technology that allows the utilization of solar energy directly from the sun to meet electricity demands. Solar PV has the potential to create a reliable clean and stable energy systems for the future. This paper discusses the different types and generations of solar PV technologies available as well as several important applications of solar PV systems which are “Large-Scale Solar PV” “Residential Solar PV” “Green Hydrogen” “Water Desalination” and “Transportation”. This paper also provides research on the number of solar papers and their applications that relate to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the years between 2011 and 2021. A total of 126513 papers were analyzed. The results show that 72% of these papers are within SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. This shows that there is a lack of research in solar energy regarding the SDGs especially SDG 1: No Poverty SDG 4: Quality Education SDG 5: Gender Equality SDG 9: Industry Innovation and Infrastructure SDG 10: Reduced Inequality and SDG 16: Peace Justice and Strong Institutions. More research is needed in these fields to create a sustainable world with solar PV technologies.
Evidence Base Utilised to Justify a Hydrogen Blend Gas Network Safety Case
Sep 2021
Publication
Blending hydrogen with natural gas up to 20 % mol/mol has been identified as a key enabler of hydrogen deployment within the UK gas network. This work outlines the evidence base generated to form the basis of safety submitted to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to justify a demonstration of hydrogen blending on a live public gas network within the UK supplying a hydrogen blend to 668homes over the course of 10 months. An evidence base to demonstrate that gas users are not prejudiced by the addition of hydrogen is required by the Gas Safety (Management) Regulations [1] to allow hydrogen distribution above the 0.1 mol% limit specified within the regulations. The technical evidence generated to support the safety case presented to the HSE concerned the implications of introducing a hydrogen blend on appliance operation materials gas characteristics and operational procedures. The outputs of the technical evidence workstreams provided input data to a Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) of the GB gas distribution network. The QRA was developed in support of the safety case to allow a causal understanding of public risk to be understood where harm due to gas usage was defined as risk to life caused either by carbon monoxide poisoning or as a result of fires/explosions. Public records were used to calibrate and validate the base risk model to understand the dynamics of public risk due to natural gas usage. The experimental and analytical results of the technical workstreams were then used to derive risk model inputs relating to a hydrogen blend. This allowed a quantified comparison of risk to be understood to demonstrate parity of safety between natural gas and a hydrogen blend. This demonstration of risk parity is a condition precedent of allowing the distribution and utilisation of hydrogen blends within the GB gas network.
Gas Turbine Enclosures: Determining Ventilation Safety Criteria using Hydrogen Explosion Modelling
Sep 2021
Publication
Dilution ventilation is the current basis of safety following a flammable gas leak within a gas turbine enclosure and compliance requirements are defined for methane fuels in ISO 21789. These requirements currently define a safety criteria of a maximum flammable gas cloud size within an enclosure. The requirements are based on methane explosion tests conducted during a HSE Joint Industry Project which identified typical pressures associated with a range of gas cloud sizes. The industry standard approach is to assess the ventilation performance of specific enclosure designs against these requirements using CFD modelling. Gas turbine manufacturers are increasingly considering introducing hydrogen/methane fuel mixtures and looking towards operating with hydrogen alone. It is therefore important to review the applicability of current safety standards for these new fuels as the pressure resulting from a hydrogen explosion is expected to be significantly higher than that from a methane explosion. In this paper we replicate the previous methane explosion tests for hydrogen and hydrogen/methane fuel mixtures using the explosion modelling tool FLACS CFD. The results are used to propose updated limiting safety criteria for hydrogen fuels to support ventilation CFD analysis for specific enclosure designs. It is found that significantly smaller gas cloud sizes are likely to be acceptable for gas turbines fueled by hydrogen however significantly more hydrogen than methane is required per unit volume to generate a stoichiometric cloud (as hydrogen has a lower stoichiometric air fuel ratio than methane). This effect results in the total quantity of gas in the enclosure (and as such detectability of the gas) being broadly similar when operating gas turbines on hydrogen when compared to methane.
Sustainable Synthetic Carbon Based Fuels for Transport
Sep 2019
Publication
The report considers two types of sustainable synthetic fuels: electro fuels (efuels) and synthetic biofuels. Efuels are made by combining hydrogen (from for example the electrolysis of water) with carbon dioxide (from direct air capture or a point source). Synthetic biofuels can be made from biological material (for example waste from forestry) or from further processing biofuels (for example ethanol).<br/>Whilst synthetic fuels can be “dropped in” to existing engines they are currently more expensive than fossil fuels and in the case of efuels could be thought of as an inefficient use of renewable electricity. However where renewable electricity is cheap and plentiful the manufacture and export of bulk efuels might make economic sense.<br/>Key research challenges identified include improving the fundamental understanding of catalysis; the need to produce cheap low-carbon hydrogen at scale; and developing sources of competitively priced low carbon energy are key to the development of synthetic efuels and biofuels. The UK has the research skills and capacity to improve many of these process steps such as in catalysis and biotechnology and to provide a further area of UK leadership in low-carbon energy.
The Path to Net Zero and Progress on Reducing Emissions in Wales
Dec 2020
Publication
These two joint reports required under the Environment (Wales) Act 2016 provide ministers with advice on Wales’ climate targets between now and 2050 and assess progress on reducing emissions to date. Our advice to the Welsh Government is set out in two parts:
Advice Report: The path to a Net Zero Wales provides recommendations on the actions that are needed in Wales including the legislation of a Net Zero target and package of policies to deliver it.
Progress Report: Reducing emissions in Wales looks back at the progress made in Wales since the 2016 Environment (Wales) Act was passed and assesses whether Wales is on track to meet its currently legislated emissions reductions targets.
This work is based on an extensive programme of analysis consultation and consideration by the Committee and its staff building on the evidence published last year for our Net Zero report. It is compatible with our advice on the UK’s Sixth Carbon Budget. In support of the advice in this report we have also published:
Advice Report: The path to a Net Zero Wales provides recommendations on the actions that are needed in Wales including the legislation of a Net Zero target and package of policies to deliver it.
Progress Report: Reducing emissions in Wales looks back at the progress made in Wales since the 2016 Environment (Wales) Act was passed and assesses whether Wales is on track to meet its currently legislated emissions reductions targets.
This work is based on an extensive programme of analysis consultation and consideration by the Committee and its staff building on the evidence published last year for our Net Zero report. It is compatible with our advice on the UK’s Sixth Carbon Budget. In support of the advice in this report we have also published:
- All the charts and data behind the report as well as a separate dataset for the scenarios which sets out more details and data on the pathways than can be included in this report.
- A public Call for Evidence several new research projects three expert advisory groups and deep dives into the roles of local authorities and businesses.
From Post-Combustion Carbon Capture to Sorption-Enhanced Hydrogen Production: A State-of-the-Art Review of Carbonate Looping Process Feasibility
Oct 2018
Publication
Carbon capture and storage is expected to play a pivotal role in achieving the emission reduction targets established by the Paris Agreement. However the most mature technologies have been shown to reduce the net efficiency of fossil fuel-fired power plants by at least 7% points increasing the electricity cost. Carbonate looping is a technology that may reduce these efficiency and economic penalties. Its maturity has increased significantly over the past twenty years mostly due to development of novel process configurations and sorbents for improved process performance. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the calcium looping concepts and statistically evaluates their techno-economic feasibility. It has been shown that the most commonly reported figures for the efficiency penalty associated with calcium looping retrofits were between 6 and 8% points. Furthermore the calcium-looping-based coal-fired power plants and sorption-enhanced hydrogen production systems integrated with combined cycles and/or fuel cells have been shown to achieve net efficiencies as high as 40% and 50–60% respectively. Importantly the performance of both retrofit and greenfield scenarios can be further improved by increasing the degree of heat integration as well as using advanced power cycles and enhanced sorbents. The assessment of the economic feasibility of calcium looping concepts has indicated that the cost of carbon dioxide avoided will be between 10 and 30 € per tonne of carbon dioxide and 10–50 € per tonne of carbon dioxide in the retrofit and greenfield scenarios respectively. However limited economic data have been presented in the current literature for the thermodynamic performance of calcium looping concepts.
Energy Transition: Measurement Needs Within the Hydrogen Industry
Dec 2017
Publication
Hydrogen in the UK is beginning to shift from hypothetical debates to practical demonstration projects. An ever-growing evidence base has showcased how the costs of hydrogen and its barriers to entry are reducing such that it now has practical potential to contribute to the decarbonisation of the UK's energy sector.
Despite this hydrogen has yet to have wide commercial uptake due in part to a number of barriers where measurement plays a critical role. To accelerate the shift towards the hydrogen economy these challenges have been identified and prioritised by NPL.
The report Energy transition: Measurement needs within the hydrogen industry outlines the challenges identified. The highest priority issues are:
This Document can be downloaded from their website
Despite this hydrogen has yet to have wide commercial uptake due in part to a number of barriers where measurement plays a critical role. To accelerate the shift towards the hydrogen economy these challenges have been identified and prioritised by NPL.
The report Energy transition: Measurement needs within the hydrogen industry outlines the challenges identified. The highest priority issues are:
- Material development for fuel cells and electrolysers to reduce costs and assess critical degradation mechanisms – extending lifetime and durability is key to the commercialisation of these technologies.
- Impact assessment of added odorant to hydrogen to aid leak detection. Measurement of its impact during pipeline transportation and on the end-use application (particularly fuel cell technology) will be important to provide assurance that it will not affect lifetime and durability.
- Determination of the blend ratio when hydrogen is mixed with natural gas in the gas grid. Accurate flow rate measurement and validated metering methods are needed to ensure accurate billing of the consumer.
- Measurement of the combustion properties of hydrogen including flame detection and propagation temperature and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions should it be used for heat applications to ensure existing and new appliances are suitable for hydrogen.
- Assessment of the suitability of existing gas infrastructure and materials for hydrogen transportation. Building an understanding of what adaptations might need to be made to avoid for example air permeation metal embrittlement and hydrogen leakage.
- Validated techniques for hydrogen storage which will require measurement of the efficiency and capacity of each mechanism through robust metering leakage detection and purity analysis to ensure they are optimised for the storage of hydrogen gas.
This Document can be downloaded from their website
Conversion of the UK Gas System to Transport Hydrogen
May 2013
Publication
One option to decarbonise residential heat in the UK is to convert the existing natural gas networks to deliver hydrogen. We review the technical feasibility of this option using semistructured interviews underpinned by a literature review and we assess the potential economic benefits using the UK MARKAL energy systems model. We conclude that hydrogen can be transported safely in the low-pressure pipes but we identify concerns over the reduced capacity of the system and the much lower linepack storage compared to natural gas. New hydrogen meters and sensors would have to be fitted to every building in a hydrogen conversion program and appliances would have to be converted unless the government was to legislate to make them hydrogen-ready in advance. Converting the gas networks to hydrogen is a lower-cost residential decarbonisation pathway for the UK than those identified previously. The cost-optimal share of hydrogen is sensitive to the conversion cost and to variations in the capital costs of heat pumps and micro-CHP fuel cells. With such small cost differentials between technologies the decision to convert the networks will also depend on non-economic factors including the relative performance of technologies and the willingness of the government to organise a conversion program.
The Effect of Hydrogen Containing Fuel Blends Upon Flashback in Swirl Burners
Feb 2011
Publication
Lean premixed swirl combustion is widely used in gas turbines and many other combustion Processes due to the benefits of good flame stability and blow off limits coupled with low NOx emissions. Although flashback is not generally a problem with natural gas combustion there are some reports of flashback damage with existing gas turbines whilst hydrogen enriched fuel blends especially those derived from gasification of coal and/or biomass/industrial processes such as steel making cause concerns in this area. Thus this paper describes a practical experimental approach to study and reduce the effect of flashback in a compact design of generic swirl burner representative of many systems. A range of different fuel blends are investigated for flashback and blow off limits; these fuel mixes include methane methane/hydrogen blends pure hydrogen and coke oven gas. Swirl number effects are investigated by varying the number of inlets or the configuration of the inlets. The well known Lewis and von Elbe critical boundary velocity gradient expression is used to characterise flashback and enable comparison to be made with other available data. Two flashback phenomena are encountered here. The first one at lower swirl numbers involves flashback through the outer wall boundary layer where the crucial parameter is the critical boundary velocity gradient Gf. Values of Gf are of similar magnitude to those reported by Lewis and von Elbe for laminar flow conditions and it is recognised that under the turbulent flow conditions pertaining here actual gradients in the thin swirl flow boundary layer are much higher than occur under laminar flow conditions. At higher swirl numbers the central recirculation zone (CRZ) becomes enlarged and extends backwards over the fuel injector to the burner baseplate and causes flashback to occur earlier at higher velocities. This extension of the CRZ is complex being governed by swirl number equivalence ratio and Reynolds Number. Under these conditions flashback occurs when the cylindrical flame front surrounding the CRZ rapidly accelerates outwards to the tangential inlets and beyond especially with hydrogen containing fuel mixes. Conversely at lower swirl numbers with a modified exhaust geometry hence restricted CRZ flashback occurs through the outer thin boundary layer at much lower flow rates when the hydrogen content of the fuel mix does not exceed 30%. The work demonstrates that it is possible to run premixed swirl burners with a wide range of hydrogen fuel blends so as to substantially minimise flashback behaviour thus permitting wider used of the technology to reduce NOx emissions.
Controlled Autoignition of Hydrogen in a Direct-injection Optical Engine
Mar 2021
Publication
Research into novel internal combustion engines requires consideration of the diversity in future fuels in an attempt to reduce drastically CO2 emissions from vehicles and promote energy sustainability. Hydrogen has been proposed as a possible fuel for future internal combustion engines and can be produced from renewable sources. Hydrogen’s wide flammability range allows higher engine efficiency than conventional fuels with both reduced toxic emissions and no CO2 gases. Most previous work on hydrogen engines has focused on spark-ignition operation. The current paper presents results from an optical study of controlled autoignition (or homogeneous charge compression ignition) of hydrogen in an engine of latest spark-ignition pentroof combustion chamber geometry with direct injection of hydrogen (100 bar). This was achieved by a combination of inlet air preheating in the range 200–400 C and residual gas recirculated internally by negative valve overlap. Hydrogen fuelling was set to various values of equivalence ratio typically in the range / = 0.40–0.63. Crank-angle resolved flame chemiluminescence images were acquired for a series of consecutive cycles at 1000 RPM in order to calculate in-cylinder rates of flame expansion and motion. Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) of OH was also applied to record more detailed features of the autoignition pattern. Single and double (i.e. ‘split’ per cycle) hydrogen injection strategies were employed in order to identify the effect of mixture preparation on autoignition’s timing and spatial development. An attempt was also made to review relevant in-cylinder phenomena from the limited literature on hydrogen-fuelled spark-ignition optical engines and make comparisons were appropriate.
Socio-technical Barriers to Domestic Hydrogen Futures: Repurposing Pipelines, Policies, and Public Perceptions
Feb 2023
Publication
The feasibility of the global energy transition may rest on the ability of nations to harness hydrogen's potential for cross-sectoral decarbonization. In countries historically reliant on natural gas for domestic heating and cooking such as the UK hydrogen may prove critical to meeting net-zero targets and strengthening energy security. In response the UK government is targeting industrial decarbonization via hydrogen with parallel interest in deploying hydrogen-fueled appliances for businesses and homes. However prospective hydrogen futures and especially the domestic hydrogen transition face multiple barriers which reflect the cross-sectoral dynamics of achieving economies of scale and social acceptance. Addressing these challenges calls for a deep understanding of socio-technical factors across different scales of the hydrogen economy. In response this paper develops a socio-technical systems framework for overcoming barriers to the domestic transition which is applied to the UK context. The paper demonstrates that future strategies should account for interactions between political techno-economic technical market and social dimensions of the hydrogen transition. In parallel to techno-economic feasibility the right policies will be needed to create an even playing field for green hydrogen technologies while also supporting stakeholder symbiosis and consumer buy-in. Future studies should grapple with how an effective repurposing of pipelines policies and public perceptions can be aligned to accelerate the development of the hydrogen economy with maximum net benefits for society and the environment.
A Review of Energy Systems Models in the UK: Prevalent Usage and Categorisation
Feb 2016
Publication
In this paper a systematic review of academic literature and policy papers since 2008 is undertaken with an aim of identifying the prevalent energy systems models and tools in the UK. A list of all referenced models is presented and the literature is analysed with regards sectoral coverage and technological inclusion as well as mathematical structure of models. The paper compares available models using an appropriate classification schema the introduction of which is aimed at making the model landscape more accessible and perspicuous thereby enhancing the diversity of models within use. The distinct classification presented in this paper comprises three sections which specify the model purpose and structure technological detail and mathematical approach. The schema is not designed to be comprehensive but rather to be a broad classification with pertinent level of information required to differentiate between models. As an example the UK model landscape is considered and 22 models are classified in three tables as per the proposed schema.
A Review of the MSCA ITN ECOSTORE—Novel Complex Metal Hydrides for Efficient and Compact Storage of Renewable Energy as Hydrogen and Electricity
Mar 2020
Publication
Hydrogen as an energy carrier is very versatile in energy storage applications. Developments in novel sustainable technologies towards a CO2-free society are needed and the exploration of all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) as well as solid-state hydrogen storage applications based on metal hydrides can provide solutions for such technologies. However there are still many technical challenges for both hydrogen storage material and ASSBs related to designing low-cost materials with low-environmental impact. The current materials considered for all-solid-state batteries should have high conductivities for Na+ Mg2+ and Ca2+ while Al3+-based compounds are often marginalised due to the lack of suitable electrode and electrolyte materials. In hydrogen storage materials the sluggish kinetic behaviour of solid-state hydride materials is one of the key constraints that limit their practical uses. Therefore it is necessary to overcome the kinetic issues of hydride materials before discussing and considering them on the system level. This review summarizes the achievements of the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) innovative training network (ITN) ECOSTORE the aim of which was the investigation of different aspects of (complex) metal hydride materials. Advances in battery and hydrogen storage materials for the efficient and compact storage of renewable energy production are discussed.
Pipeline to 2050 - Building the Foundations for a Harmonised Heat Strategy
Nov 2020
Publication
Following up on our report Uncomfortable Home Truths: why Britain urgently needs a low carbon heat strategy Pipeline to 2050 sets out recommendations for BEIS’ forthcoming Heat and Buildings Strategy. Based on the findings of five roundtables held between January and July 2020 with cross-party parliamentarians policy-makers and experts from industry academia and non-governmental organisations the publication calls for a joined-up approach that simultaneously addresses all aspects of heat decarbonisation.<br/>The report highlights that today there is a patchwork of heat policy initiatives. Although they might incentivise positive development in themselves are nevertheless too dispersed and not enough to drive the level of coordinated action that is needed given the complexity of heat decarbonisation. Setting out propositions to tackle challenges associated with the transition to low carbon heat in the areas of governance funding innovation and public engagement; the publication calls for a Heat and Buildings Strategy that shows a step change in terms of ambition for heat decarbonisation.<br/>The report recommends that the Heat and Buildings Strategy needs to put forward a systematic approach that joins up all policy aspects and principles needed for the transition to low carbon heat. Moreover given the cross-sectoral engagement needed between consumers industry research and various levels of the government it argues that the Strategy has to be constructed in a way that simultaneously catalyses action from all stakeholders that are needed to take part in the process for effective heat decarbonisation.
A Study into Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Power and Voltage Prediction using Artificial Neural Network
Sep 2022
Publication
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) uses hydrogen as fuel to generate electricity and by-product water at relatively low operating temperatures which is environmentally friendly. Since PEMFC performance characteristics are inherently nonlinear and related predicting the best performance for the different operating conditions is essential to improve the system’s efficiency. Thus modeling using artificial neural networks (ANN) to predict its performance can significantly improve the capabilities of handling multi-variable nonlinear performance of the PEMFC. This paper predicts the electrical performance of a PEMFC stack under various operating conditions. The four input terms for the 5 W PEMFC include anode and cathode pressures and flow rates. The model performances are based on ANN using two different learning algorithms to estimate the stack voltage and power. The models have shown consistently to be comparable to the experimental data. All models with at least five hidden neurons have coefficients of determination of 0.95 or higher. Meanwhile the PEMFC voltage and power models have mean squared errors of less than 1 × 10−3 V and 1 × 10−3 W respectively. Therefore the model results demonstrate the potential use of ANN into the implementation of such models to predict the steady state behavior of the PEMFC system (not limited to polarization curves) for different operating conditions and help in the optimization process for achieving the best performance of the system.
Life Cycle Costing Analysis: Tools and Applications for Determining Hydrogen Production Cost for Fuel Cell Vehicle Technology
Jul 2021
Publication
This work investigates life cycle costing analysis as a tool to estimate the cost of hydrogen to be used as fuel for Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicles (HFCVs). The method of life cycle costing and economic data are considered to estimate the cost of hydrogen for centralised and decentralised production processes. In the current study two major hydrogen production methods are considered methane reforming and water electrolysis. The costing frameworks are defined for hydrogen production transportation and final application. The results show that hydrogen production via centralised methane reforming is financially viable for future transport applications. The ownership cost of HFCVs shows the highest cost among other costs of life cycle analysis.
Building Hydrogen Competence, a Technology Aligned Skills and Knowledge Approach
Sep 2021
Publication
There is a pressing need for a framework and strategic approach to be taken to workforce safety training requirements of new hydrogen projects. It is apparent that organisations embarking on projects utilizing or producing green hydrogen need to implement a program of training for their workforce in order to ensure that all personnel within their organisation understand not only the environmental benefits of green hydrogen but also the safety considerations that come with either producing or using hydrogen as a fuel. Energy Transition must be safe to be successful. If such an approach is taken by industry and stakeholders it is also possible to use the high level content as a vehicle and basis to offer public audiences which also require a basic level of understanding in order to fully accept the transition to using hydrogen more widely as a fuel. This will be crucial to the success of national hydrogen strategies. Coeus Energy has developed an innovative framework of training following engagement with operators keen to ensure their duty of care responsibilities have been met. Whilst having highly skilled personnel already employed within their organisations specific hydrogen content is still required for workforce competence. This is where the framework need arises as the knowledge is required at all levels of an organisation.
A Review of Factors Affecting SCC Initiation and Propagation in Pipeline Carbon Steels
Aug 2022
Publication
Pipelines have been installed and operated around the globe to transport oil and gas for decades. They are considered to be an effective economic and safe means of transportation. The major concern in their operation is corrosion. Among the different forms of corrosion stress corrosion cracking (SCC) which is caused by stresses induced by internal fluid flow or other external forces during the pipeline’s operation in combined action with the presence of a corrosive medium can lead to pipeline failure. In this paper an extensive review of different factors affecting SCC of pipeline steels in various environmental conditions is carried out to understand their impact. Several factors such as temperature presence of oxidizers (O2 CO2 H2S etc.) composition and concentration of medium pH applied stress and microstructure of the metal/alloy have been established to affect the SCC of pipeline steels. SCC susceptibility of a steel at a particular temperature strongly depends on the type and composition of the corrosive medium and microstructure. It was observed that pipeline steels with water quenched and quenched and tempered heat treatments such as those that consist of acicular ferrite or bainitic ferrite grains are more susceptible to SCC irrespective of solution type and composition. Applied stress stress concentration and fluctuating stress facilitates SCC initiation and propagation. In general the mechanisms for crack initiation and propagation in near-neutral solutions are anodic dissolution and hydrogen embrittlement.
Heating Economics Evaluated Against Emissions: An Analysis of Low-carbon Heating Systems with Spatiotemporal and Dwelling Variations
Oct 2022
Publication
An understanding of heating technologies from the consumers’ perspective is critical to ensure low-carbon technologies are adopted for reducing their current associated emissions. Existing studies from the consumers’ perspective do not compare and optimise the full range and combinations of potential heating systems. There is also little consideration of how spatiotemporal and dwelling variations combined alter the economic and environmental effectiveness of technologies. The novelty of this paper is the creation and use of a new comprehensive framework to capture the range of heating technologies and their viability for any specific dwelling’s traits and climate from customers’ perspective which is missing from current studies. The model optimises combinations of prime heaters energy sources ancillary solar technologies and sizes thermal energy storage sizes and tariffs with hourly heating simulation across a year and compares their operation capital and lifetime costs alongside emissions to realise the true preferential heating systems for customers which could be used by various stakeholders. Using the UK as a case study the results show electrified heating is generally the optimum lifetime cost solution mainly from air source heat pumps coupled with photovoltaics. However direct electrical heating becomes more economically viable as dwelling demands reduce from smaller dwellings or warmer climates as shorter durations of the ownership are considered or with capital cost constraints from lower income households. Understanding this is of high importance as without correctly targeted incentives a larger uptake of direct electrical heating may occur which will burden the electrical network and generation to a greater extent than more efficient heat pumps.
Life Cycle Cost Analysis for Scotland Short-Sea Ferries
Feb 2023
Publication
The pathway to zero carbon emissions passing through carbon emissions reduction is mandatory in the shipping industry. Regarding the various methodologies and technologies reviewed for this purpose Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) has been used as an excellent tool to determine economic feasibility and sustainability and to present directions. However insufficient commercial applications cause a conflict of opinion on which fuel is the key to decarbonisation. Many LCCA comparison studies about eco-friendly ship propulsion claim different results. In order to overcome this and discover the key factors that affect the overall comparative analysis and results in the maritime field it is necessary to conduct the comparative analysis considering more diverse case ships case routes and various types that combine each system. This study aims to analyse which greener fuels are most economically beneficial for the shipping sector and prove the factors influencing different results in LCCA. This study was conducted on hydrogen ammonia and electric energy which are carbon-free fuels among various alternative fuels that are currently in the limelight. As the power source a PEMFC and battery were used as the main power source and a solar PV system was installed as an auxiliary power source to compare economic feasibility. Several cost data for LCCA were selected from various feasible case studies. As the difficulty caused by the storage and transportation of hydrogen and ammonia should not be underestimated in this study the LCCA considers not only the CapEx and OpEx but also fuel transport costs. As a result fuel cell propulsion systems with hydrogen as fuel proved financial effectiveness for short-distance ferries as they are more inexpensive than ammonia-fuelled PEMFCs and batteries. The fuel cost takes around half of the total life-cycle cost during the life span.
A Novel Framework for Development and Optimisation of Future Electricity Scenarios with High Penetration of Renewables and Storage
May 2019
Publication
Although electricity supply is still dominated by fossil fuels it is expected that renewable sources will have a much larger contribution in the future due to the need to mitigate climate change. Therefore this paper presents a new framework for developing Future Electricity Scenarios (FuturES) with high penetration of renewables. A multi-period linear programming model has been created for power-system expansion planning. This has been coupled with an economic dispatch model PowerGAMA to evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of the developed scenarios while matching supply and demand. Application of FuturES is demonstrated through the case of Chile which has ambitious plans to supply electricity using only renewable sources. Four cost-optimal scenarios have been developed for the year 2050 using FuturES: two Business as usual (BAU) and two Renewable electricity (RE) scenarios. The BAU scenarios are unconstrained in terms of the technology type and can include all 11 options considered. The RE scenarios aim to have only renewables in the mix including storage. The results show that both BAU scenarios have a levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) lower than or equal to today’s costs ($72.7–77.3 vs $77.6/MWh) and include 81–90% of renewables. The RE scenarios are slightly more expensive than today’s costs ($81–87/MWh). The cumulative investment for the BAU scenarios is $123-$145 bn compared to $147-$157 bn for the RE. The annual investment across the scenarios is estimated at $4.0 ± 0.4 bn. Both RE scenarios show sufficient flexibility in matching supply and demand despite solar photovoltaics and wind power contributing around half of the total supply. Therefore the FuturES framework is a powerful tool for aiding the design of cost-efficient power systems with high penetration of renewables.
A Financial Model for Lithium-ion Storage in a Photovoltaic and Biogas Energy System
May 2019
Publication
Electrical energy storage (EES) such as lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries can reduce curtailment of renewables maximizing renewable utilization by storing surplus electricity. Several techno-economic analyses have been performed on EES but few have investigated the financial performance. This paper presents a state-of-the-art financial model obtaining novel and significative financial and economics results when applied to Li-ion EES. This work is a significant step forward since traditional analysis on EES are based on oversimplified and unrealistic economic models. A discounted cash flow model for the Li-ion EES is introduced and applied to examine the financial performance of three EES operating scenarios. Real-life solar irradiance load and retail electricity price data from Kenya are used to develop a set of case studies. The EES is coupled with photovoltaics and an anaerobic digestion biogas power plant. The results show the impact of capital cost: the Li-ion project is unprofitable in Kenya with a capital cost of 1500 $/kWh but is profitable at 200 $/kWh. The study shows that the EES will generate a higher profit if it is cycled more frequently (hence a higher lifetime electricity output) although the lifetime is reduced due to degradation.
Gas Goes Green: Hydrogen Blending Capacity Maps
Jan 2022
Publication
Britain's gas networks are ready for hydrogen blending. Learn more about Britain's hydrogen blending capacity in the National Transmission System and Distribution Networks.
A Review of Technical Advances, Barriers, and Solutions in the Power to Hydrogen Roadmap
Oct 2020
Publication
Power to hydrogen (P2H) provides a promising solution to the geographic mismatch between sources of renewable energy and the market due to its technological maturity flexibility and the availability of technical and economic data from a range of active demonstration projects. In this review we aim to provide an overview of the status of P2H analyze its technical barriers and solutions and propose potential opportunities for future research and industrial demonstrations. We specifically focus on the transport of hydrogen via natural gas pipeline networks and end-user purification. Strong evidence shows that an addition of about 10% hydrogen into natural gas pipelines has negligible effects on the pipelines and utilization appliances and may therefore extend the asset value of the pipelines after natural gas is depleted. To obtain pure hydrogen from hydrogen-enriched natural gas (HENG) mixtures end-user separation is inevitable and can be achieved through membranes adsorption and other promising separation technologies. However novel materials with high selectivity and capacity will be the key to the development of industrial processes and an integrated membrane-adsorption process may be considered in order to produce high-purity hydrogen from HENG. It is also worth investigating the feasibility of electrochemical separation (hydrogen pumping) at a large scale and its energy analysis. Cryogenics may only be feasible when liquefied natural gas (LNG) is one of the major products. A range of other technological and operational barriers and opportunities such as water availability byproduct (oxygen) utilization and environmental impacts are also discussed. This review will advance readers’ understanding of P2H and foster the development of the hydrogen economy.
Strategic Transport Fleet Analysis of Heavy Goods Vehicle Technology for Net-zero Targets
Jul 2022
Publication
This paper addresses the decarbonisation of the heavy-duty transport sector and develops a strategy towards net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in heavy-goods vehicles (HGVs) by 2040. By conducting a literature review and a case study on the vehicle fleet of a large UK food and consumer goods retailer the feasibilities of four alternative vehicle technologies are evaluated from environmental economic and technical perspectives. Socio-political factors and commercial readiness are also examined to capture non-technical criteria that influences decision-makers. Strategic analysis frameworks such as PEST-SWOT models were developed for liquefied natural gas biomethane electricity and hydrogen to allow a holistic comparison and identify their long-term deployment potential. Technology innovation is needed to address range and payload limitations of electric trucks whereas government and industry support are essential for a material deployment of hydrogen in the 2030s. Given the UK government’s plan to phase out new diesel HGVs by 2040 fleet operators should commence new vehicle trials by 2025 and replace a considerable amount of their lighter diesel trucks with zero-emission vehicles by 2030 and the remaining heavier truck fleet by 2035.
Multi-model Assessment of Heat Decarbonisation Options in the UK Using Electricity and Hydrogen
May 2022
Publication
Delivering low-carbon heat will require the substitution of natural gas with low-carbon alternatives such as electricity and hydrogen. The objective of this paper is to develop a method to soft-link two advanced investment-optimising energy system models RTN (Resource-Technology Network) and WeSIM (Whole-electricity System Investment Model) in order to assess cost-efficient heat decarbonisation pathways for the UK while utilising the respective strengths of the two models. The linking procedure included passing on hourly electricity prices from WeSIM as input to RTN and returning capacities and locations of hydrogen generation and shares of electricity and hydrogen in heat supply from RTN to WeSIM. The outputs demonstrate that soft-linking can improve the quality of the solution while providing useful insights into the cost-efficient pathways for zero-carbon heating. Quantitative results point to the cost-effectiveness of using a mix of electricity and hydrogen technologies for delivering zero-carbon heat also demonstrating a high level of interaction between electricity and hydrogen infrastructure in a zero-carbon system. Hydrogen from gas reforming with carbon capture and storage can play a significant role in the medium term while remaining a cost-efficient option for supplying peak heat demand in the longer term with the bulk of heat demand being supplied by electric heat pumps.
Hydrogenerally - Episode 7: Hydrogen for Heat
Dec 2022
Publication
In this seventh episode Steffan Eldred Hydrogen Innovation Network Knowledge Transfer Manager and Jenni McDonnell MBE Heating and Cooling Knowledge Transfer Manager from Innovate UK KTN discuss why using hydrogen to generate heat is so important and explore the hydrogen economy opportunities and challenges within this sector alongside their special guest Jeff House Head of External Affairs Baxi Boilers.
The podcast can be found on their website.
The podcast can be found on their website.
Quantifying the Impacts of Heat Decarbonisation Pathways on the Future Electricity and Gas Demand
May 2022
Publication
The decarbonisation of heat supply will play a critical role in meeting the emissions reduction target. There is however great uncertainty associated with the achievable levels of heat decarbonisation and the optimal heat technology mix which can have serious implications for the future electricity and gas demand. This work employs an integrated gas electricity and heat supply model to quantify the impacts of heat decarbonisation pathways on the future electricity and gas demand. A case study in the Great Britain is performed considering two heat decarbonisation scenarios in 2050: one is the predominantly electrified heat supply and the other is the predominantly hydrogen-based heat supply. The electricity demand becomes more volatile in the electrified heat scenario as the peak surges to 107.3 GW compared to 51.1 GW in the 2018 reference scenario while the peak in hydrogen-based heat scenario is 78.4 GW. The peak gas demand declines from 247.6 GW for 2018 to 81.7 GW for electrified heat scenario and to 85.1 GW for hydrogen-based heat scenario confirming that the seasonality associated with heat demand is shifting away from the gas network and towards electricity network. Moreover a sensitivity analysis shows that the future electricity demand is highly sensitive to parameters such as relative heat demand coefficient of performance of air source heat pumps and share of electricity in hydrogen production. Finally the application of a load shifting strategy demonstrates that demand-side flexibility has the potential to maintain the electricity system balance and minimise the generation and network infrastructure requirements arising from heat electrification. While the case study presented in this paper is based on the Great Britain the findings regarding the future electricity and gas demand are relevant for the global energy transition.
Notes on the Development of the Hydrogen Supplement to IGEM/TD13 > 7 bar
Nov 2021
Publication
IGEM/TD/13 Standard applies to the safe design construction inspection testing operation and maintenance of pressure regulating installations (PRIs) in accordance with current knowledge and operational experience.
This Supplement provides additional requirements for new PRIs to be used for the transmission of Hydrogen including Natural Gas/Hydrogen blended mixtures (subsequently referred to as NG/H blends) and for the repurposing of Natural Gas (NG) PRIs for Hydrogen service.
NG/H blends are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol % Hydrogen with respect to limits on design stresses the potential effect on the material properties and damage and defect categories and acceptance levels unless an additional technical evaluation is carried out to qualify the materials.
NG/H blends containing in excess of 10 mol % Hydrogen are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol.% Hydrogen with respect to all other requirements except for hazardous areas.
This Supplement gives additional recommendations for PRIs and installations:
This Supplement provides additional requirements for new PRIs to be used for the transmission of Hydrogen including Natural Gas/Hydrogen blended mixtures (subsequently referred to as NG/H blends) and for the repurposing of Natural Gas (NG) PRIs for Hydrogen service.
NG/H blends are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol % Hydrogen with respect to limits on design stresses the potential effect on the material properties and damage and defect categories and acceptance levels unless an additional technical evaluation is carried out to qualify the materials.
NG/H blends containing in excess of 10 mol % Hydrogen are considered to be equivalent to 100 mol.% Hydrogen with respect to all other requirements except for hazardous areas.
This Supplement gives additional recommendations for PRIs and installations:
- with an upstream maximum operating pressure (MOP) not greater than 100 bar
- with an outlet pressure greater than or equal to 7 bar
- for use with Hydrogen or NG/H blends with a Hydrogen content greater than 10 %
- operating with a temperature range between -20°C and 120°C.
Solar Power and Energy Storage for Decarbonization of Land Transport in India
Dec 2021
Publication
By considering the weight penalty of batteries on payload and total vehicle weight this paper shows that almost all forms of land-based transport may be served by battery electric vehicles (BEV) with acceptable cost and driving range. Only long-distance road freight is unsuitable for battery electrification. The paper models the future Indian electricity grid supplied entirely by low-carbon forms of generation to quantify the additional solar PV power required to supply energy for transport. Hydrogen produced by water electrolysis for use as a fuel for road freight provides an inter-seasonal energy store that accommodates variations in renewable energy supply. The advantages and disadvantages are considered of midday electric vehicle charging vs. overnight charging considering the temporal variations in supply of renewable energy and demand for transport services. There appears to be little to choose between these two options in terms of total system costs. The result is an energy scenario for decarbonized surface transport in India based on renewable energy that is possible realistically achievable and affordable in a time frame of year 2050.
Next for Net Zero Podcast: Unlock & Understand, Achieving a More Sustainable Future
Sep 2022
Publication
This episode examines how we are tackling a sustainable future – with Net Zero hurtling towards us at great pace. We’re around a year on from the pledges made at COP26 the UK’s Green Recovery initiative is well under way and by next year Britain is aiming to blend up to 20 per cent hydrogen into its gas networks. So now is the time to continue to unlock new insight and understand further the realities of both the challenges and opportunities ahead.
The podcast can be found here.
The podcast can be found here.
Economic Analysis of a Zero-carbon Liquefied Hydrogen Tanker Ship
Jun 2022
Publication
The green hydrogen economy is considered one of the sustainable solutions to mitigate climate change. This study provides an economic analysis of a novel liquified hydrogen (LH2) tanker fuelled by hydrogen with a total capacity of ~280000 m3 of liquified hydrogen named ‘JAMILA’. An established economic method was applied to investigate the economic feasibility of the JAMILA ship as a contribution to the future zero-emission target. The systematic economic evaluation determined the net present value of the LH2 tanker internal rate of return payback period and economic value added to support and encourage shipyards and the industrial sector in general. The results indicate that the implementation of the LH2 tanker ship can cover the capital cost of the ship within no more than 2.5 years which represents 8.3% of the assumed 30-year operational life cycle of the project in the best maritime shipping prices conditions and 6 years in the worst-case shipping marine economic conditions. Therefore the assessment of the economic results shows that the LH2 tankers may be a worthwhile contribution to the green hydrogen economy.
Green Hydrogen Production and Use in Low- and Middle-income Countries: A Least-cost Geospatial Modelling Approach Applied to Kenya
May 2023
Publication
With the rising threat of climate change green hydrogen is increasingly seen as the high-capacity energy storage and transport medium of the future. This creates an opportunity for low- and middle-income countries to leverage their high renewable energy potential to produce use and export low-cost green hydrogen creating environmental and economic development benefits. While identifying ideal locations for green hydrogen production is critical for countries when defining their green hydrogen strategies there has been a paucity of adequate geospatial planning approaches suitable to low- and middle-income countries. It is essential for these countries to identify green hydrogen production sites which match demand to expected use cases such that their strategies are economically sustainable. This paper therefore develops a novel geospatial cost modelling method to optimize the location of green hydrogen production across different use cases with a focus on suitability to low- and middle-income countries. This method is applied in Kenya to investigate the potential hydrogen supply chain for three use cases: ammonia-based fertilizer freight transport and export. We find hydrogen production costs of e3.7–9.9/kgH2 are currently achievable across Kenya depending on the production location chosen. The cheapest production locations are identified to the south and south-east of Lake Turkana. We show that ammonia produced in Kenya can be cost-competitive given the current energy crisis and that Kenya could export hydrogen to Rotterdam with costs of e7/kgH2 undercutting current market prices regardless of the carrier medium. With expected techno-economic improvements hydrogen production costs across Kenya could drop to e1.8–3.0/kgH2 by 2030.
Numerical Investigation on NOx Emission of a Hydrogen-Fuelled Dual-Cylinder Free-Piston Engine
Jan 2023
Publication
The free-piston engine is a type of none-crank engine that could be operated under variable compression ratio and this provides it flexible fuel applicability and low engine emission potential. In this work several 1-D engine models including conventional gasoline engines free-piston gasoline engines and free-piston hydrogen engines have been established. Both engine performance and emission performance under engine speeds between 5–11 Hz and with different equivalent ratios have been simulated and compared. Results indicated that the free-piston engine has remarkable potential for NOx reduction and the largest reduction is 57.37% at 6 Hz compared with a conventional gasoline engine. However the figure of NOx from the hydrogen free-piston engine is slightly higher than that of the gasoline free-piston engine and the difference increases with the increase of engine speed. In addition several factors and their relationships related to hydrogen combustion in the free-piston engine have been investigated and results show that the equivalent ratio ϕ = 0.88 is a vital point that affects NOx production and the ignition advance timing could also affect combustion duration the highest in-cylinder temperature and NOx production to a large extent.
Present and Projected Developments in Hydrogen Production: A Technological Review
Mar 2022
Publication
Energy supplies that are safe environmentally friendly dependable and cost-effective are important for society's long-term growth and improved living standards though political social and economic barriers may inhibit their availability. Constantly increasing energy demand is induced by substantial population growth and economic development putting an increasing strain on fossil fuel management and sustainability which account for a major portion of this rising energy demand and moreover creates difficulties because of greenhouse gas emissions growth and the depletion of resources. Such impediments necessitate a global shift away from traditional energy sources and toward renewables. Aside from its traditional role is viewed as a promising energy vector and is gaining international attention as a promising fuel path as it provides numerous benefits in use case scenarios and unlike other synthesized carbon-based fuels could be carbon-free or perhaps even negative on a life-cycle criterion. Hydrogen ( ) is one of the most significant chemical substances on earth and can be obtained as molecular dihydrogen through various techniques from both non-renewable and renewable sources. The drive of this paper is to deliver a technological overview of hydrogen production methods. The major challenges development and research priorities and potential prospects for production was discussed.
Solar Hydrogen Fuel Generation from Wastewater—Beyond Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: A Perspective
Oct 2022
Publication
Green hydrogen—a carbon-free renewable fuel—has the capability to decarbonise a variety of sectors. The generation of green hydrogen is currently restricted to water electrolysers. The use of freshwater resources and critical raw materials however limits their use. Alternative water splitting methods for green hydrogen generation via photocatalysis and photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) have been explored in the past few decades; however their commercial potential still remains unexploited due to the high hydrogen generation costs. Novel PEC-based simultaneous generation of green hydrogen and wastewater treatment/high-value product production is therefore seen as an alternative to conventional water splitting. Interestingly the organic/inorganic pollutants in wastewater and biomass favourably act as electron donors and facilitate the dual-functional process of recovering green hydrogen while oxidising the organic matter. The generation of green hydrogen through the dual-functional PEC process opens up opportunities for a “circular economy”. It further enables the end-of-life commodities to be reused recycled and resourced for a better life-cycle design while being economically viable for commercialisation. This review brings together and critically analyses the recent trends towards simultaneous wastewater treatment/biomass reforming while generating hydrogen gas by employing the PEC technology. We have briefly discussed the technical challenges associated with the tandem PEC process new avenues techno-economic feasibility and future directions towards achieving net neutrality.
The Key Techno-Economic and Manufacturing Drivers for Reducing the Cost of Power-to-Gas and a Hydrogen-Enabled Energy System
Jul 2021
Publication
Water electrolysis is a process which converts electricity into hydrogen and is seen as a key technology in enabling a net-zero compatible energy system. It will enable the scale-up of renewable electricity as a primary energy source for heating transport and industry. However displacing the role currently met by fossil fuels might require a price of hydrogen as low as 1 $/kg whereas renewable hydrogen produced using electrolysis is currently 10 $/kg. This article explores how mass manufacturing of proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysers can reduce the capital cost and thus make the production of renewable power to hydrogen gas (PtG) more economically viable. A bottom up direct manufacturing model was developed to determine how economies of scale can reduce the capital cost of electrolysis. The results demonstrated that (assuming an annual production rate of 5000 units of 200 kW PEM electrolysis systems) the capital cost of a PEM electrolysis system can reduce from 1990 $/kW to 590 $/kW based on current technology and then on to 431 $/kW and 300 $/kW based on the an installed capacity scale-up of ten- and one-hundred-fold respectively. A life-cycle costing analysis was then completed to determine the importance of the capital cost of an electrolysis system to the price of hydrogen. It was observed that based on current technology mass manufacturing has a large impact on the price of hydrogen reducing it from 6.40 $/kg (at 10 units units per year) to 4.16 $/kg (at 5000 units per year). Further analysis was undertaken to determine the cost at different installed capacities and found that the cost could reduce further to 2.63 $/kg and 1.37 $/kg based on technology scale-up by ten- and one hundred-fold respectively. Based on the 2030 (and beyond) baseline assumptions it is expected that hydrogen production from PEM electrolysis could be used as an industrial process feed stock provide power and heat to buildings and as a fuel for heavy good vehicles (HGVs). In the cases of retrofitted gas networks for residential or industrial heating solutions or for long distance transport it represents a more economically attractive and mass-scale compatible solution when compared to electrified heating or transport solutions.
Feasibility of Hydrogen Storage in Depleted Hydrocarbon Chalk Reservoirs: Assessment of Biochemical and Chemical Effects
Jul 2022
Publication
Hydrogen storage is one of the energy storage methods that can help realization of an emission free future by saving surplus renewable energy for energy deficit periods. Utilization of depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs for large-scale hydrogen storage may be associated with the risk of chemical/biochemical reactions. In the specific case of chalk reservoirs the principal reactions are abiotic calcite dissolution acetogenesis methanogenesis and biological souring. Here we use PHREEQC to evaluate the dynamics and the extent of hydrogen loss by each of these reactions in hydrogen storage scenarios for various Danish North Sea chalk hydrocarbon reservoirs. We find that: (i) Abiotic calcite dissolution does not occur in the temperature range of 40-180◦ C. (ii) If methanogens and acetogens grow as slow as the slowest growing methanogens and acetogens reported in the literature methanogenesis and acetogenesis cannot cause a hydrogen loss more than 0.6% per year. However (iii) if they proceed as fast as the fastest growing methanogens and acetogens reported in the literature a complete loss of all injected hydrogen in less than five years is possible. (iv) Co-injection of CO2 can be employed to inhibit calcite dissolution and keep the produced methane due to methanogenesis carbon neutral. (v) Biological sulfate reduction does not cause significant hydrogen loss during 10 years but it can lead to high hydrogen sulfide concentrations (1015 ppm). Biological sulfate reduction is expected to impact hydrogen storage only in early stages if the only source of sulfur substrates are the dissolved species in the brine and not rock minerals. Considering these findings we suggest that depleted chalk reservoirs may not possess chemical/biochemical risks and be good candidates for large-scale underground hydrogen storage.
A System-Approach to Data can Help Install Trust and Enable a Net Zero Future
Mar 2021
Publication
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) and hydrogen will be a catalyst to deeply decarbonize the world’s energy system but not for another 15 years according to DNV’s Energy Transition Outlook. Many aspects from policy to technology developments can help to scale these technologies and accelerate the timeline.<br/>In the report A System-Approach to Data can Help Install Trust and Enable a Net Zero Future DNV considers what role data could play to support the initiation execution and operation of CCS and hydrogen projects.<br/>The research is based on interviews with representatives from across the UK energy supply chain. It focuses in particular on the emerging carbon and hydrogen industries and the cross sectoral challenges they face. It explores how data can facilitate the flow of the product both with respect to fiscal and technical risk matters.<br/>The report is intended for anyone involved in or has an interest in CCUS or hydrogen projects and in how data eco-systems will support the efficient operation and the transition to net-zero.<br/>DNV produced the report for and in partnership with the ODI an organization that advocates for the innovative use of open data to affect positive change across the globe.
Overview of First Outcomes of PNR Project HYTUNNEL-CS
Sep 2021
Publication
Dmitry Makarov,
Donatella Cirrone,
Volodymyr V. Shentsov,
Sergii Kashkarov,
Vladimir V. Molkov,
Z. Xu,
Mike Kuznetsov,
Alexandros G. Venetsanos,
Stella G. Giannissi,
Ilias C. Tolias,
Knut Vaagsaether,
André Vagner Gaathaug,
Mark R. Pursell,
W. M. Rattigan,
Frank Markert,
Luisa Giuliani,
L.S. Sørensen,
A. Bernad,
Mercedes Sanz Millán,
U. Kummer,
C. Brauner,
Paola Russo,
J. van den Berg,
F. de Jong,
Tom Van Esbroeck,
M. Van De Veire,
D. Bouix,
Gilles Bernard-Michel,
Sergey Kudriakov,
Etienne Studer,
Domenico Ferrero,
Joachim Grüne and
G. Stern
The paper presents the first outcomes of the experimental numerical and theoretical studies performed in the funded by Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH2 JU) project HyTunnel-CS. The project aims to conduct pre-normative research (PNR) to close relevant knowledge gaps and technological bottlenecks in the provision of safety of hydrogen vehicles in underground transportation systems. Pre normative research performed in the project will ultimately result in three main outputs: harmonised recommendations on response to hydrogen accidents recommendations for inherently safer use of hydrogen vehicles in underground traffic systems and recommendations for RCS. The overall concept behind this project is to use inter-disciplinary and inter-sectoral prenormative research by bringing together theoretical modelling and experimental studies to maximise the impact. The originality of the overall project concept is the consideration of hydrogen vehicle and underground traffic structure as a single system with integrated safety approach. The project strives to develop and offer safety strategies reducing or completely excluding hydrogen-specific risks to drivers passengers public and first responders in case of hydrogen vehicle accidents within the currently available infrastructure.
Research Progress, Trends, and Current State of Development on PEMFC-New Insights from a Bibliometric Analysis and Characteristics of Two Decades of Research Output
Nov 2022
Publication
The consumption of hydrogen could increase by sixfold in 2050 compared to 2020 levels reaching about 530 Mt. Against this backdrop the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) has been a major research area in the field of energy engineering. Several reviews have been provided in the existing corpus of literature on PEMFC but questions related to their evolutionary nuances and research hotspots remain largely unanswered. To fill this gap the current review uses bibliometric analysis to analyze PEMFC articles indexed in the Scopus database that were published between 2000–2021. It has been revealed that the research field is growing at an annual average growth rate of 19.35% with publications from 2016 to 2012 alone making up 46% of the total articles available since 2000. As the two most energy-consuming economies in the world the contributions made towards the progress of PEMFC research have largely been from China and the US. From the research trend found in this investigation it is clear that the focus of the researchers in the field has largely been to improve the performance and efficiency of PEMFC and its components which is evident from dominating keywords or phrases such as ‘oxygen reduction reaction’ ‘electrocatalysis’ ‘proton exchange membrane’ ‘gas diffusion layer’ ‘water management’ ‘polybenzimidazole’ ‘durability’ and ‘bipolar plate’. We anticipate that the provision of the research themes that have emerged in the PEMFC field in the last two decades from the scientific mapping technique will guide existing and prospective researchers in the field going forward.
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