Applications & Pathways

The fishing sector is faced with emission problems arising from the extensive use of diesel engines as prime movers. Energy efficiency environmental performance and minimization of operative costs through the reduction of fuel consumption are key research topics across the whole maritime sector. Ship emissions can be determined at different levels of complexity and accuracy i.e. by analyzing ship technical data and assuming its operative profile or by direct measurements of key parameters. This paper deals with the analysis of the environmental footprint of a fishing trawler operating in the Adriatic Sea including three phases of the Life-Cycle Assessment (manufacturing Well-to-Pump (WTP) and Pump-to-Wake (PTW)). Based on the data on fuel consumption the viability of replacing the conventional diesel-powered system with alternative options is analyzed. The results showed that fuels such as LNG and B20 represent the easiest solution that would result in a reduction of harmful gases and have a positive impact on overall costs. Although electrification and hydrogen represent one of the cleanest forms of energy due to their high price and complex application in an obsolete fleet they do not present an optimal solution for the time being. The paper showed that the use of alternative fuels would have a positive effect on the reduction of harmful emissions but further work is needed to find an environmentally acceptable and economically profitable pathway for redesigning the ship power system of fishing trawlers.

The present research work aims to present a uniquely designed renewable energy-based integrated system along with an equilibrium model for the processing of feedstock by following a hybrid route of thermochemical and biochemical ways. In this regard Canadian maple leaves and plastic wastes are selected as potential feedstocks for co-pyrolysis and syngas fermentation. The influence of co-pyrolysis process parameters on the overall system performance is investigated and assessed. Also several sensitivity analyses are performed to determine the optimal operating parameters that can generate maximum yields of hydrogen and ethanol. The present system is further investigated thermodynamically in terms of energetic and exergetic approaches and efficiencies. The present study shows that a molar flow ratio of 1:1 for maple leaves to plastic wastes a temperature of 1000◦C temperature and a pressure of 1 bar appear to be the most suitable operating conditions with the net production capacities of 7.43 tons/day for hydrogen and 8.72 tons/day for ethanol. The cold gas efficiency and LHV of the syngas produced are found to be 57.23% and 19.96 MJ/kg respectively. The overall energetic and exergetic efficiencies of the present system are found to be 30.98% and 26.88% respectively.

Electric scooters are used as alternative ways of transport because they easily make travel faster. However the batteries can take around 5 h to charge and have an autonomy of 30 km. With the presence of the hydrogen cell a hybrid system reduces the charging times and increases the autonomy of the vehicle by using two types of fuel. An increase of up to 80% in maximum distance and of 34% in operating times is obtained with a 1:10 scale prototype with the hydrogen cell; although more energy is withdrawn the combined fuel efficiency increases too. This suggests the cell that is used has the same behavior as some official reported vehicles which have a long range but low power. This allows concluding that use of the cell is functional for load tests and that the comparison factor obtained works as input for real-scale scooter prototypes to compete with the traditional electric scooters.

The present study enters in the context of reducing harmful emissions of the marine fleet by using three of the most promising alternative fuels namely methanol ammonia and hydrogen. These fuels are to be examined from the perspective of both the first and second laws of thermodynamics when employed in turbocharged and intercooled Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engines (HCCI) under various values of ambient temperature and equivalence ratio. Results showed that the highest engine performance values favour using ammonia as fuel followed in order by hydrogen and methanol. Furthermore most of the exergy destruction rates (65.26% ammonia to 84.02% for hydrogen) of the exergy destruction rate occurring in the engine take place in the HCCI engine.

Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)–gas turbine (GT) hybrid systems can produce power at high electrical efficiencies while emitting virtually zero criteria pollutants (e.g. ozone carbon monoxide oxides of nitrogen and sulfur and particulate matters). This study presents new insights into renewable hydrogen (RH2 )-powered SOFC–GT hybrid systems with respect to their system configuration and techno-economic analysis motivated by the need for clean on-demand power. First three system configurations are thermodynamically assessed: (I) a reference case with no SOFC off-gas recirculation (II) a case with cathode off-gas recirculation and (III) a case with anode off-gas recirculation. While these configurations have been studied in isolation here we provide a detailed performance comparison. Moreover a techno-economic analysis is conducted to study the economic competitiveness of RH2 -fueled hybrid systems and the economies of scale by offering a comparison to natural gas (NG)-fueled systems. Results show that the case with anode off-gas recirculation with 68.50%-lower heating value (LHV) at a 10 MW scale has the highest efficiency among the studied scenarios. When moving from 10 MW to 50 MW the efficiency increases to 70.22%-LHV. These high efficiency values make SOFC–GT hybrid systems highly attractive in the context of a circular economy as they outcompete most other power generation technologies. The cost-of-electricity (COE) is reduced by about 10% when moving from 10 MW to 50 MW from USD 1976/kW to USD 1668/kW respectively. Renewable H2 is expected to be economically competitive with NG by 2030 when the U.S. Department of Energy’s target of USD 1/kg RH2 is reached.

Steer was appointed by the Directorate-General of Research and Innovation (DG RTD) to undertake an overview of key green aviation technologies and conditions for their market uptake. Steer is being supported in delivery by the Institute of Air Transport and Airport Research of the German Aerospace Centre DLR. The study was undertaken in the context of the Clean Aviation Partnership’s Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) for the period 2030-2050. The objective of the project is to identify the prerequisites for the market entry of climate-neutral aviation technologies as well as the flanking measures required for this to be successful. The scope of the study is hydrogen and electrically powered aircraft in the regional and short/medium range categories taking a holistic view on the technological development and keeping the economic context in mind. The outcome of the study will serve as guidance for the Commission and other actors with regard to further policy or industry initiatives such as in the context of Horizon Europe or the Alliance Zero Emission Aviation.

On the road towards greener aviation hybrid-electric propulsion systems have emerged as a viable solution. In this paper a system based on hydrogen fuel cells is proposed and evaluated in a laboratory setting with its future integration in a propulsive system in mind and main focus on the ability to lessen the power demand on the opposing side of the bench. The setup consists in a parallel architecture with two power sources: a hydrogen fuel cell and a battery. First the performance of the fuel cell and its capability to provide power to one of the motors are analyzed. Then the entire parallel hybrid system is evaluated. Although the experimental setup was shown to be sub-optimal the results demonstrated the ability of this greener alternative to reduce power demand on the opposing side of the parallel configuration with a reduction of up to 40.3% in the highest load scenario and maximum power output on the fuel cell of 257.8 W. The stack performance was also concluded to be very dependent on the operating temperature.

Unprecedented investments in clean energy technology are required for a net-zero carbon energy system before temperatures breach the Paris Agreement goals. By performing a Monte-Carlo Analysis with the detailed ETSAPTIAM Integrated Assessment Model and by generating 4000 scenarios of the world’s energy system climate and economy we find that the uncertainty surrounding technology costs resource potentials climate sensitivity and the level of decoupling between energy demands and economic growth influence the efficiency of climate policies and accentuate investment risks in clean energy technologies. Contrary to other studies relying on exploring the uncertainty space via model intercomparison we find that the CO2 emissions and CO2 prices vary convexly and nonlinearly with the discount rate and climate sensitivity over time. Accounting for this uncertainty is important for designing climate policies and carbon prices to accelerate the transition. In 70% of the scenarios a 1.5 ◦C temperature overshoot was within this decade calling for immediate policy action. Delaying this action by ten years may result in 2 ◦C mitigation costs being similar to those required to reach the 1.5 ◦C target if started today with an immediate peak in emissions a larger uncertainty in the medium-term horizon and a higher effort for net-zero emissions.

In the context of carbon neutrality and carbon peaking in order to achieve low carbon emissions and promote the efficient utilization of wind energy hydrogen energy as an important energy carrier is proposed to mix hydrogen and natural gas to form hydrogen-enriched compressed natural gas (HCNG). It is also injected into the natural gas pipeline network to achieve the transmission and utilization of hydrogen energy. At the same time the participation of demand response is considered the load’s peak and trough periods are adjusted and the large-scale consumption of renewable energy and the reduction in carbon emissions are achieved. First of all a fine model of hydrogen production and hydrogen use equipment is established to analyze the impact of adding hydrogen mixing on the economy and the low-carbon property of the system. With green certificates and demand response the utilization rate of hydrogen energy is improved to further explore the energy utilization rate and emission reduction capacity of the system. Secondly on the basis of modeling the optimal scheduling strategy is proposed with the sum of energy purchase cost equipment operation cost carbon emission cost wind curtailment cost and green certificate income as the lowest objective function. Considering the constraints such as hydrogen blending ratio and flexible load ratio of the pipeline network a low-carbon economic scheduling model of hydrogen mixed natural gas was established. The model was linearized and solved by using MATLAB 2021a and CPLEX solver. By comparing different scenarios the superiority of the model and the effectiveness of the strategy are verified.

Green hydrogen is a tentative solution for the decarbonisation of hard-to-abate sectors such as steel chemical cement and refinery industries. Green hydrogen is a form of hydrogen gas that is produced using renewable energy sources such as wind or solar power through a process called electrolysis. The green hydrogen supply chain includes several interconnected entities such as renewable energy providers electrolysers distribution facilities and consumers. Although there have been many studies about green hydrogen little attention has been devoted to green hydrogen supply chain risk identification and analysis especially for hard-to-abate sectors in Europe. This research contributes to existing knowledge by identifying and analysing the European region’s green hydrogen supply chain risk factors. Using a Delphi method 7 categories and 43 risk factors are identified based on the green hydrogen supply chain experts’ opinions. The best-worst method is utilised to determine the importance weights of the risk categories and risk factors. High investment of capital for hydrogen production and delivery technology was the highest-ranked risk factor followed by the lack of enough capacity for electrolyser and policy & regulation development. Several mitigation strategies and policy recommendations are proposed for high-importance risk factors. This study provides novelty in the form of an integrated approach resulting in a scientific ranking of the risk factors for the green hydrogen supply chain. The results of this study provide empirical evidence which corroborates with previous studies that European countries should endeavour to create comprehensive and supportive standards and regulations for green hydrogen supply chain implementation.

Significant research efforts are directed towards finding new ways to reduce the cost increase efficiency and decrease the environmental impact of power-generation systems. The poly-generation concept is a promising strategy that enables the development of a sustainable power system. Over the past few years the Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell-based Poly-Generation Systems (PEMFC-PGSs) have received accelerated developments due to the low-temperature operation high efficiency and low environmental impact. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the main PEMFC-PGSs including Combined Heat and Power (CHP) co-generation systems Combined Cooling and Power (CCP) co-generation systems Combined Cooling Heat and Power (CCHP) tri-generation systems and Combined Water and Power (CWP) co-generation systems. First the main technologies used in PEMFC-PGSs such as those related to hydrogen production energy storage and Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) etc. are detailed. Then the research progresses on the economic energy and environmental performance of the different PEMFC-PGSs are presented. Also the recent commercialization activities on these systems are highlighted focusing on the leading countries in this field. Furthermore the remaining economic and technical obstacles of these systems along with the future research directions to mitigate them are discussed. The review reveals the potential of the PEMFC-PGS in securing a sustainable future of the power systems. However many economic and technical issues particularly those related to high cost and degradation rate still need to be addressed before unlocking the full benefits of such systems.

Globally the increasing share of renewables prominently driven by intermittent sources such as solar and wind power poses significant challenges to the reliability of current electrical infrastructures leading to the adoption of extreme measures such as generation curtailment to preserve grid security. Within this framework it is essential to develop energy storage systems that contribute to reinforce the flexibility and security of power grids while simultaneously reducing the share of generation curtailment. Therefore this study investigates the performance of an integrated photovoltaic-hydrogen fuelled-compressed air energy storage system whose configuration is specifically conceived to enable the connection of additional intermittent sources in already saturated grids. The yearly and seasonal performance of the integrated energy storage system specifically designed to supply flexibility services are evaluated for a scenario represented by a real grid with high-variable renewables penetration and frequent dispatchability issues. Results show that the integrated system with performanceoptimized components and a new energy management strategy minimizes photovoltaic energy curtailment otherwise around 50% to as low as 4% per year achieving system efficiencies of up to 62% and reinforces the grid by supplying inertial power for up to 20% of nighttime hours. In conclusion the integrated plant operating with zero emissions on-site hydrogen production and optimized for non-dispatchable photovoltaic energy utilization proves to be effective in integrating new variable renewable sources and reinforcing saturated grids particularly during spring and summer.

Contrary to microgrids (MGs) for which grid code or legislative support are lacking in the majority of cases energy communities (ECs) are one of the cornerstones of the energy transition backed up by the EU’s regulatory framework. The main difference is that unlike MGs ECs grow and develop organically through citizen involvement and investments in the existing low-voltage (LV) distribution networks. They are not planned and built from scratch as closed distribution systems that are independent of distribution system operator plans as assumed in the existing literature. An additional benefit of ECs could be the ability to transition into island mode contributing to the resilience of power networks. To this end this paper proposes a three-stage framework for analyzing the islanding capabilities of ECs. The framework is utilized to comprehensively assess and compare the islanding capabilities of ECs whose organic development is based upon three potential energy vectors: electricity gas and hydrogen. Detailed dynamic simulations clearly show that only fully electrified ECs inherently have adequate islanding capabilities without the need for curtailment or additional investments.

Alternative sources of energy are on the rise primarily because of environmental concerns in addition to the depletion of fossil fuel reserves. Currently there are many alternatives approaches and attempts to introduce alternative energy sources in the field of transport. This article centers around the need to explore additional energy sources beyond the current ones in use. It delves into individual energy sources that can be utilized for transportation including their properties production methods and the advantages and disadvantages associated with their use across different types of drives. The article not only examines the situation in the Czech Republic but also in other nations. In addition to addressing future mobility the thesis also considers how the utilization of new energy sources may impact the environment.

It is becoming increasingly important to develop effective combustion technologies for low calorific industrial gases (LCIG) because of the rising energy demand and environmental issues caused by the extensive use of fossil fuels. In this review the prospect of these opportunity fuels in China is discussed. Then the recent fundamental and engineering studies of LCIG combustion are summarized. Specifically the differences between LCIG and traditional fuels in the composition and fundamental combustion characteristics are described. The state-of-the-art combustion strategies for burning LCIG are reviewed including porous media combustion flameless combustion oxy-fuel combustion and dual-fuel combustion. The technical challenges and further development needs for efficient LCIG combustion are also discussed.

Green hydrogen presents a promising solution for transitioning from fossil fuels to a clean energy future particularly with the application of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). However the hydrogen refuelling process for FCEVs requires extensive pre-cooling to achieve fast filling times. This study presents experiments and simulations of a hydrogen refuelling station equipped with an adaptable cold-fill unit aiming to maximize fuelling efficiencies. For this purpose we developed and experimentally validated simulation models for a hydrogen tank and an aluminium block heat exchanger. Different pre-cooling parameters affect the final tank temperatures during the parallel filling of three 350 L type IV tanks. The results indicate significant potential for optimizing the required cooling energy with achievable savings of over 50 % depending on the pre-cooling strategy. The optimized pre-cooling strategies and energy savings aid in advancing the refuelling process for FCEVs effectively contributing to the transition to clean energy.

Aiming at the synergy between a system’s carbon emission reduction demand and the economy of peak shaving operation in the process of optimizing the flexible resource peaking unit portfolio of a multi-energy power system containing large-scale electric vehicles this paper proposes a low-carbon optimal scheduling model for peak shaving resources in multi-energy power systems considering large-scale access for electric vehicles. Firstly the charging and discharging characteristics of electric vehicles were studied and a comprehensive cost model for electric vehicles heat storage and hydrogen storage was established. At the same time the carbon emission characteristics of multienergy power systems and their emission cost models under specific carbon trading mechanisms were established. Secondly the change characteristics of the system’s carbon emissions were studied and a carbon emission cost model of multi-energy power was established considering the carbon emission reduction demand of the system. Then taking the carbon emission of the system and the peak regulating operation costs of traditional units energy storage and new energy unit as optimization objectives the multi-energy power system peak regulation multi-objective optimization scheduling model was established and NSGA-II was used to solve the scheduling model. Finally based on a regional power grid data in Northeast China the improved IEEE 30 node multi-energy power system peak shaving simulation model was built and the simulation analysis verified the feasibility of the optimal scheduling model proposed in this paper.

This manuscript presents a thorough review of unitized regenerative fuel cells (URFCs) and their importance in Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS). In RAPS systems that utilize solar and hydrogen power which typically include photovoltaic modules a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer hydrogen gas storage and PEM fuel cells the cost of these systems is currently higher compared to conventional RAPS systems that employ diesel generators or batteries. URFCs offer a potential solution to reduce the expenses of solar hydrogen renewable energy systems in RAPS by combining the functionalities of the electrolyzer and fuel cell into a single unit thereby eliminating the need to purchase separate and costly electrolyzer and fuel cell units. URFCs are particularly well-suited for RAPS applications because the electrolyzer and fuel cell do not need to operate simultaneously. In electrolyzer mode URFCs function similarly to stand-alone electrolyzers. However in fuel cell mode the performance of URFCs is inferior to that of stand-alone fuel cells. The presented review summarizes the past present and future of URFCs with details on the operating modes of URFCs limitations and technical challenges and applications. Solar hydrogen renewable energy applications in RAPS and challenges facing solar hydrogen renewable energy in the RAPS is discussed in detail.

Hydrogen as a carbon-free energy carrier has emerged as a crucial component in the decarbonization of the energy system serving as both an energy storage option and fuel for dispatchable power generation to mitigate the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources. However the unique physical and combustion characteristics of hydrogen which differ from conventional gaseous fuels such as biogas and natural gas present new challenges that must be addressed. To fully integrate hydrogen as an energy carrier in the energy system the development of low-emission and highly reliable technologies capable of handling hydrogen combustion is imperative. This study presents a ground-breaking achievement - the first successful test of a micro gas turbine running on 100% hydrogen with NOx emissions below the standard limits. Furthermore the combustor of the micro gas turbine demonstrates exceptional fuel flexibility allowing for the use of various blends of hydrogen biogas and natural gas covering a wide range of heating values. In addition to a comprehensive presentation of the test rig and its instrumentation this paper illuminates the challenges of hydrogen combustion and offers real-world operational data from engine operation with 100% hydrogen and its blends with methane.

This report of the High Level Group for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies sets out a vision for these technologies in future sustainable energy systems - improving energy security of supply and air quality whilst mitigating climate change. The report recommends actions for developing world-class European hydrogen technologies and fostering their commercial exploitation.

This study presents a novel framework for improving the resilience of microgrids based on the power-to-hydrogen concept and the ability of microgrids to operate independently (i.e. islanded mode). For this purpose a model is being developed for the resilient operation of microgrids in which the compressed hydrogen produced by power-to-hydrogen systems can either be used to generate electricity through fuel cells or sold to other industries. The model is a bi-objective optimization problem which minimizes the cost of operation and resilience by (i) reducing the active power exchange with the main grid (ii) reducing the ohmic power losses and (iii) increasing the amount of hydrogen stored in the tanks. A solution approach is also developed to deal with the complexity of the bi-objective model combining a goal programming approach and Generalized Benders Decomposition due to the mixed-integer nonlinear nature of the optimization problem. The results indicate that the resilience approach although increasing the operation cost does not lead to load shedding in the event of main grid failures. The study concludes that integrating distributed power-to-hydrogen systems results in significant benefits including emission reductions of up to 20 % and cost savings of up to 30 %. Additionally the integration of the decomposition method improves computational performance by 54 % compared to using commercial solvers within the GAMS software.

A dedicated grid-tied offshore hybrid energy system for hydrogen production is a promising solution to unlock the full benefit of offshore wind and solar energy and realize decarbonization and sustainable energy security targets in electricity and other sectors. Current knowledge of these offshore hybrid systems is limited particularly in the integration component control and allocation aspects. Therefore a grid-integrated analytical model with a power dispatch allocation strategy between the grid and electrolyzer for the co-production of hydrogen from the offshore hybrid energy system is developed in this paper. While producing hydrogen the proposed offshore hybrid energy system supplies a percentage of its capacity to the onshore grid facility and the amount of the electricity is quantified based on the electricity market price and available total offshore generation. The detailed controls of each component are discussed. A case study considers a hypothetical hybrid offshore energy system of 10 MW situated in a potential offshore off the NSW of Australia based on realistic metrological data. A grid-scale proton-exchange membrane electrolyzer stack is used and a model predictive power controller is implemented on the distributed hydrogen generation scheme. The model is helpful for the assessment or optimization of both the economics and feasibility of the dedicated offshore hybrid energy farm for hydrogen production systems.

Rapid depletion of conventional fossil fuels and increasing environmental concern are demanding an urgent carry out for research to find an alternate fuel which meets the fuel demand with minimum environmental impacts. Hydrogen is considered as one of the important fuel in the near future which meets the above alarming problems. Hydrogen–gasoline dual fuel engines use hydrogen as primary fuel and gasoline as secondary fuel. In this review paper the combustion performance emission and cyclic variation characteristics of a hydrogen–gasoline dual fuel engine have been critically analyzed. According to scientific literature hydrogen–gasoline dual fuel engines have a good thermal efficiency at low and partial loads but the performance deteriorates at high loads. Hydrogen direct injection with gasoline port fuel injection is the optimum configuration for dual fuel engine operating on hydrogen and gasoline. This configuration shows superior result in mitigating the abnormal combustion but experiences high NOx emission. Employing EGR showed a maximum reduction of 77.8% of NOx emission with a EGR flowrate of 18% further increment in flowrate leads to combustion instability. An overview on hydrogen production and carbon footprint related with hydrogen production is also included. This review paper aims to provide comprehensive findings from past works associated with hydrogen–gasoline dual fuel approach in a spark ignition engine

This paper proposes a multi-objective model predictive control (MPC) designed for the power management of a multi-stack fuel cell (FC) system integrated into a renewable sources-based microgrid. The main advantage of MPC is the fact that it allows the current timeslot to be optimized while taking future timeslots into account. The multi-objective function solves the problem related to the power dispatch at time that includes criteria to reduce the multi-stack FC degradation operating and maintenance costs as well as hydrogen consumption. Regarding the scientific literature the novelty of this paper lies in the proposal of a generalized MPC controller for a multi-stack FC that can be used independently of the number of stacks that make it up. Although all the stacks that make up the modular FC system are identical their levels of degradation in general will not be. Thus over time each stack can present a different behavior. Therefore the power control strategy cannot be based on an equal distribution according to the nominal power of each stack. On the contrary the control algorithm should take advantage of the characteristics of the multi-stack FC concept distributing operation across all the stacks regarding their capacity to produce power/energy and optimizing the overall performance.

This paper presents a mathematical programming approach for the strategic planning of hydrogen production from renewable energies and its use in electric power generation in conventional technologies. The proposed approach aims to determine the optimal selection of the different types of technologies electrolyzers and storage units (energy and hydrogen). The approach considers the implementation of an optimization methodology to select a representative data set that characterizes the total annual demand. The economic objective aims to determine the minimum cost which is composed of the capital costs in the acquisition of units operating costs of such units costs of production and transmission of energy as well as the cost associated with the emissions generated which is related to an environmental tax. A specific case study is presented in the Mexican peninsula and the results show that it is possible to produce hydrogen at a minimum sale price of 4200 $/tonH2 with a total cost of $5.1687 × 106 and 2.5243 × 105 tonCO2eq. In addition the financial break-even point corresponds to a sale price of 6600 $/tonH2 . The proposed model determines the trade-offs between the cost and the emissions generated.

With the development of energy integration technology demand response (DR) has gradually evolved into integrated demand response (IDR). In this study for the integrated energy system (IES) on the distribution grid side with electricity heat natural gas network and hydrogen energy equipment the analogy relationship between the thermal and mobile hydrogen energy storage networks is proposed. Moreover a unified model that reflects network commonalities across different energy forms is established. Then considering the time delay of the IES in the nontransient network a time-domain two-port model of the IES considering the time delay is established. This model shows the joint effect of time and space on system parameters. Finally this study validates the model in the application of DR. The verification results show that in DR the time-domain two-port model can accurately “cut peaks and fill valleys” for the IES and effectively reduce the operating cost of the IES system.

Motor vehicles are the backbone of global transport. In recent years due to the rising costs of fossil fuels and increasing concerns about their negative impact on the natural environment the development of low-emission power supply systems for vehicles has been observed. In order to create a stable and safe global transport system an important issue seems to be the diversification of propulsion systems for vehicles which can be achieved through the simultaneous development of conventional internal combustion vehicles electric vehicles (both battery and fuel cell powered) as well as combustion hydrogen-powered vehicles. This publication presents an overview of commercial vehicles (available on the market) powered by internal combustion hydrogen engines. The work focuses on presenting the development of technology from the point of view of introducing ready-made hydrogen-powered vehicles to the market or technical solutions enabling the use of hydrogen mixtures in internal combustion engines. The study covers the history of the technology dedicated hydrogen and bi-fuel vehicles and vehicles with an engine powered by a mixture of conventional fuels and hydrogen. It presents basic technology parameters and solutions introduced by leading vehicle manufacturers in the vehicle market.

Green hydrogen i.e. produced from renewable resources is attracting attention as an alternative fuel for the future of heavy road transport and long-distance driving. However the benefits linked to zero pollution at the usage stage can be overturned when considering the upstream processes linked to the raw materials and energy requirements. To better understand the global environmental implications of fuelling heavy transport with hydrogen we quantified the environmental impacts over the full life cycle of hydrogen use in the context of the Planetary Boundaries (PBs). The scenarios assessed cover hydrogen from biomass gasification (with and without carbon capture and storage [CCS]) and electrolysis powered by wind solar bioenergy with CCS nuclear and grid electricity. Our results show that the current diesel-based-heavy transport sector is unsustainable due to the transgression of the climate change-related PBs (exceeding standalone by two times the global climate-change budget). Hydrogen-fuelled heavy transport would reduce the global pressure on the climate change-related PBs helping the transport sector to stay within the safe operating space (i.e. below one-third of the global ecological budget in all the scenarios analysed). However the best scenarios in terms of climate change which are biomass-based would shift burdens to the biosphere integrity and nitrogen flow PBs. In contrast burden shifting in the electrolytic scenarios would be negligible with hydrogen from wind electricity emerging as an appealing technology despite attaining higher carbon emissions than the biomass routes

Hydrogen supplementation in diesel Compression Ignition (CI) engines is gaining more attention since it is considered as a feasible solution to tackle the challenges that are related to the emission regulations that will be applied in the forthcoming years. Such a solution is very attractive because it requires only limited modifications to the existing technology of internal combustion CI engines. To this end numerous work on the investigation of an engine’s performance and the effects of emissions when hydrogen is supplied in the engine’s cylinders has been completed by researchers. However contradictory results were found among these studies regarding the efficiency of the engine and the emission characteristics achieved compared to the diesel-only operation. The different conclusions might be attributed to the different characteristics and technology level of the engines that were utilized as well as on the chosen operational parameters. This paper aims to present an overview of the experimental studies that have examined the effects of hydrogen addition in CI four-stroke diesel engines reporting the characteristics of the utilized engines the quantities of hydrogen tested the method of hydrogen induction used as well as the operational conditions tested in order to help interested researchers to easily identify relevant and appropriate studies to perform comparisons or validations by repeating certain cases. The presented data do not include any results or conclusions from these studies. Furthermore an experimental configuration along with the appropriate modifications on a heavy-duty auxiliary generator-set engine that was recently developed by the authors for the purposes of the HYMAR project is presented.

Hydrogen as a carbon-free fuel is commonly expected to play a major role in future energy supply e.g. as an admixture gas in natural gas grids. Which impacts on residential and commercial gas appliances can be expected due to the significantly different physical and chemical properties of hydrogen-enriched natural gas? This paper analyses and discusses blends of hydrogen and natural gas from the perspective of combustion science. The admixture of hydrogen into natural gas changes the properties of the fuel gas. Depending on the combustion system burner design and other boundary conditions these changes may cause higher combustion temperatures and laminar combustion velocities while changing flame positions and shapes are also to be expected. For appliances that are designed for natural gas these effects may cause risk of flashback reduced operational safety material deterioration higher nitrogen oxides emissions (NOx) and efficiency losses. Theoretical considerations and first measurements indicate that the effects of hydrogen admixture on combustion temperatures and the laminar combustion velocities are often largely mitigated by a shift towards higher air excess ratios in the absence of combustion control systems but also that common combustion control technologies may be unable to react properly to the presence of hydrogen in the fuel.

Eliminating CO₂ emissions from industry and transport in line with the 1.5⁰C climate goal

To avoid catastrophic climate change the world needs to reach zero carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in all all sectors of the economy by the 2050s. Effective energy decarbonisation presents a major challenge especially in key industry and transport sectors.



The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has produced a comprehensive study of deep decarbonisation options focused on reaching zero into time to fulfil the Paris Agreement and hold the line on rising global temperatures.



Several sectors stand out as especially hard to decarbonise. Four of the most energy-intensive industries (iron and steel chemicals and petrochemicals cement and lime and aluminium) and three key transport sectors (road freight aviation and shipping) could together account for 38% of energy and process emissions and 43% of final energy use by 2050 without major policy changes now the report finds.



Reaching zero with renewables considers how these sectors could achieve zero emissions by 2060 and assesses the use of renewables and related technologies to achieve this. Decarbonisation options for each sector span efficiency improvements electrification direct heat and fuel production using renewables along with CO₂ removal measures.



Without such measures energy and process emissions could amount to 11.4 gigatonnes from industry and 8.6 gigatonnes from transport at mid-century the report indicates. Along with sector-specific actions cross-cutting actions are needed at higher levels.



The report offers ten broad recommendations for industries and governments:

1. Pursue a renewables-based strategy for end-use sectors with an end goal of zero emissions.

2. Develop a shared vision and strategy and co-develop practical roadmaps involving all major players.

3. Build confidence and knowledge among decision makers.

4. Plan and deploy enabling infrastructure early on.

5. Foster early demand for green products and services.

6. Develop tailored approaches to ensure access to finance.

7. Collaborate across borders.

8. Think globally while utilising national strengths.

9. Establish clear pathways for the evolution of regulations and international standards.

10. Support research development and systemic innovation.



With the right plans and sufficient support the goal of reaching zero is achievable the report shows.

Capturing and sealing away carbon dioxide released from industrial processes and electricity generation is acknowledged internationally to be potentially a winning intervention in the battle against climate change. The collected technologies that make up Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) could remove more than 90% of the carbon emissions from energy intensive industries and electricity production. In power generation CCS not only provides low-carbon output but it also preserves capacity in fossil fuel-fired plant to respond to shifts in demand. This is a near-unique combination that could mitigate the different shortcomings of harnessing the wind the sun or nuclear fission.<br/>CCS could clear a path to the UK’s carbon reduction targets; secure its energy supplies; and reduce the cost of those achievements. With CCS in play a low-carbon future with secure energy supplies becomes affordable. However without our research has found that the costs of meeting the UK’s lowcarbon targets could double to £60bn a year by 2050 at today’s prices.<br/>However CCS has to be honed technically and commercially before it can become a reality. ETI supported by its partners has made important progress and continues to do so.

The production of hydrogen through water electrolysis is a promising pathway to decarbonize the energy sector. This paper presents a techno-economic model of electrolysis plants based on multiple states of operation: production hot standby and idle. The model enables the calculation of the optimal hourly dispatch of electrolyzers to produce hydrogen for different end uses. This model has been tested with real data from an existing installation and compared with a simpler electrolyzer model that is based on two states. The results indicate that an operational strategy that considers the multi-state model leads to a decrease in final hydrogen production costs. These reduced costs will benefit businesses especially while electrolysis plants grow in size to accommodate further increases in demand.

The synthesis of low-cost and highly active electrodes for both oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is very important for water splitting. In this work the novel amorphous iron-nickel phosphide (FeP-Ni) nanocone arrays as efficient bifunctional electrodes for overall water splitting have been in-situ assembled on conductive three-dimensional (3D) Ni foam via a facile and mild liquid deposition process. It is found that the FeP-Ni electrode demonstrates highly efficient electrocatalytic performance toward overall water splitting. In 1 M KOH electrolyte the optimal FeP-Ni electrode drives a current density of 10 mA/cm2 at an overpotential of 218 mV for the OER and 120 mV for the HER and can attain such current density for 25 h without performance regression. Moreover a two-electrode electrolyzer comprising the FeP-Ni electrodes can afford 10 mA/cm2 electrolysis current at a low cell voltage of 1.62 V and maintain long-term stability as well as superior to that of the coupled RuO2/NF‖Pt/C/NF cell. Detailed characterizations confirm that the excellent electrocatalytic performances for water splitting are attributed to the unique 3D morphology of nanocone arrays which could expose more surface active sites facilitate electrolyte diffusion benefit charge transfer and also favorable bubble detachment behavior. Our work presents a facile and cost-effective pathway to design and develop active self-supported electrodes with novel 3D morphology for water electrolysis.

Liquid hydrogen has been studied for use in vehicles. However during the charging process liquid hydrogen is lost as gas. Therefore it is necessary to estimate and reduce this loss and simulate the charging process. In this study the initial charging process of a vehicle liquid hydrogen tank under room temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions was numerically investigated. A transient thermal-fluid simulation with a phase-change model was performed to analyze variations in the volume pressure mass flow rate and temperature. The results showed that the process could be divided into three stages. In the first stage liquid hydrogen was actively vaporized at the inner wall surface of the storage tank. The pressure increased rapidly and liquid droplets were discharged into the vent pipe during the second stage. In the third stage the mass flow rates of liquid and hydrogen gas at the outlet showed significant fluctuations owing to complex momentum generated by the evaporation and charging flow. The temperatures of the inner and outer walls and insulation layer decreased significantly slower than that of the gas region because of its high heat capacity and insulation effect. The optimal structure should be further studied because the vortex stagnation and non-uniform cooling of the wall occurred near the inlet and outlet pipes.

Metal fuels as recyclable carriers of clean energy are promising alternatives to fossil fuels in a future low-carbon economy. Fossil fuels are a convenient and widely-available source of stored solar energy that have enabled our modern society; however fossil-fuel production cannot perpetually keep up with increasing energy demand while carbon dioxide emissions from fossil-fuel combustion cause climate change. Low-carbon energy carriers with high energy density are needed to replace the multiple indispensable roles of fossil fuels including for electrical and thermal power generation for powering transportation fleets and for global energy trade. Metals have high energy densities and metals are therefore fuels within many batteries energetic materials and propellants. Metal fuels can be burned with air or reacted with water to release their chemical energy at a range of power-generation scales. The metal-oxide combustion products are solids that can be captured and then be recycled using zero-carbon electrolysis processes powered by clean energy enabling metals to be used as recyclable zero-carbon solar fuels or electrofuels. A key technological barrier to the increased use of metal fuels is the current lack of clean and efficient combustor/reactor/engine technologies to convert the chemical energy in metal fuels into motive or electrical power (energy). This paper overviews the concept of low-carbon metal fuels and summarizes the current state of our knowledge regarding the reaction of metal fuels with water to produce hot hydrogen on demand and the combustion of metal fuels with air in laminar and turbulent flames. Many important questions regarding metal-fuel combustion processes remain unanswered as do questions concerning the energy-cycle efficiency and life-cycle environmental impacts and economics of metals as recyclable fuels. Metal fuels can be an important technology option within a future low-carbon society and deserve focused attention to address these open questions.

The Swedish and Finnish steel industry has a world-leading position in terms of efficient blast furnace operations with low CO2 emissions. This is a result of a successful development work carried out in the 1980s at LKAB (Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara Aktiebolag mining company) and SSAB (steel company) followed by the closing of sinter plants and transition to 100% pellet operation at all of SSAB’s five blast furnaces. However to further reduce CO2 emission in iron production a new breakthrough technology is necessary. In 2016 SSAB teamed up with LKAB and Vattenfall AB (energy company) and launched a project aimed at investigating the feasibility of a hydrogen-based sponge iron production process with fossil-free electricity as the primary energy source: HYBRIT (Hydrogen Breakthrough Ironmaking Technology). A prefeasibility study was carried out in 2017 which concluded that the proposed process route is technically feasible and economically attractive for conditions in northern Sweden/Finland. A decision was made in February 2018 to build a pilot plant and construction started in June 2018 with completion of the plant planned in summer 2020 followed by experimental campaigns the following years. Parallel with the pilot plant activities a four-year research program was launched from the autumn of 2016 involving several research institutes and universities in Sweden to build knowledge and competence in several subject areas.

The development of new infrastructure is often a consideration in the introduction of new innovations. Currently there is some confusion around how to develop a hydrogen infrastructure to support the introduction of FCVs. Lessons can be learned from similar technology introduction in the past and therefore this paper investigates how mobile phone infrastructure was developed allowing the mass-market penetration of mobile phones. Based on this successful infrastructural development suggestions can be made on the development of a hydrogen infrastructure. It is suggested that a hydrogen infrastructure needs to be pre-developed 3–5 years before the market introduction of FCVs can successfully occur. A lack of infrastructural pre-development will cause to the market introduction of FCVs to fail.

This paper presents a new Fuel Cell Fuel Consumption Minimization Strategy (FCFCMS) for Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) powered by a fuel cell and an energy storage system in order to minimize as much as possible the consumption of hydrogen while maintaining the State Of Charge (SOC) of the battery. Compared to existing Energy Management Strategies (EMSs) (such as the well-known State Machine Strategy (SMC) Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) Frequency Decoupling and FLC (FDFLC) and the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS)) the proposed strategy increases the overall vehicle energy efficiency and therefore minimizes the total hydrogen consumption while respecting the constraints of each energy and power element. A model of a hybrid vehicle has been built using the TruckMaker/MATLAB software. Using the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) which includes several stops and accelerations the performance of the proposed strategy has been compared with these different approaches (SMC FLC FDFLC and ECMS) through several simulations.

A larger adoption of hydrogen fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) is typically included in the strategies to decarbonize the transportation sector. This inclusion is supported by life-cycle assessments (LCAs) which show the potential greenhouse gas (GHG) emission benefit of replacing internal combustion engine vehicles with their fuel cell counterpart. However the literature review performed in this study shows that the effects of durability and performance losses of fuel cells on the life-cycle environmental impact of the vehicle have rarely been assessed. Most of the LCAs assume a constant fuel consumption (ranging from 0.58 to 1.15 kgH2/100 km) for the vehicles throughout their service life which ranges in the assessments from 120000 to 225000 km. In this study the effect of performance losses on the life-cycle GHG emissions of the vehicles was assessed based on laboratory experiments. Losses have the effect of increasing the life-cycle GHG emissions of the vehicle up to 13%. Moreover this study attempted for the first time to investigate via laboratory analyses the GHG implications of replacing the hydrophobic polymer for the gas diffusion medium (GDM) of fuel cells to increase their durability. LCA showed that when the service life of the vehicle was fixed at 150000 km the GHG emission savings of using an FC with lower performance losses (i.e. FC coated with fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP) instead of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)) are negligible compared to the overall life-cycle impact of the vehicle. Both the GDM coating and the amount of hydrogen saved account for less than 2% of the GHG emissions arising during vehicle operation. On the other hand when the service life of the vehicle depends on the operability of the fuel cell the global warming potential per driven km of the FEP-based FCEV reduces by 7 to 32%. The range of results depends on several variables such as the GHG emissions from hydrogen production and the initial fuel consumption of the vehicle. Higher GHG savings are expected from an FC vehicle with high consumption of hydrogen produced with fossil fuels. Based on the results we recommend the inclusion of fuel-cell durability in future LCAs of FCEVs. We also advocate for more research on the real-life performance of fuel cells employing alternative materials.

Green hydrogen is addressed as a promising solution to decarbonize industrial and mobility sectors. In this context ports could play a key role not only as hydrogen users but also as suppliers for industrial plants with which they have strong commercial ties. The implementation of hydrogen technologies in ports has started to be addressed as a strategy for renewable energy transition but still requires a detailed evaluation of the involved costs which cannot be separated from the correct design and operation of the plant. Hence this study proposes the design and operation optimization of a hydrogen production and storage system in a typical Italian port. Multi-objective optimization is performed to determine the optimal levelized cost of hydrogen in environmental and techno-economic terms. A Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer powered by a grid-integrated photovoltaic (PV) plant a compression station and two-pressure level storage systems are chosen to provide hydrogen to a hydrogen refueling station for a 20-car fleet and satisfy the demand of the hydrogen batch annealing in a steel plant. The results report that a 341 kWP PV plant 89 kW electrolyzer and 17 kg hydrogen storage could provide hydrogen at 7.80 €/kgH2 potentially avoiding about 153 tCO2eq/year (120 tCO2eq/year only for the steel plant).

For commercial applications the durability and economy of the fuel cell hybrid system have become obstacles to be overcome which are not only affected by the performance of core materials and components but also closely related to the energy management strategy (EMS). This paper takes the 7.9 t fuel cell logistics vehicle as the research object and designed the EMS from two levels of qualitative and quantitative analysis which are the composite fuzzy control strategy optimized by genetic algorithm and Pontryagin’s minimum principle (PMP) optimized by objective function respectively. The cost function was constructed and used as the optimization objective to prolong the life of the power system as much as possible on the premise of ensuring the fuel economy. The results indicate that the optimized PMP showed a comprehensive optimal performance the hydrogen consumption was 3.481 kg/100 km and the cost was 13.042 $/h. The major contribution lies in that this paper presents a method to evaluate the effect of different strategies on vehicle performance including fuel economy and durability of the fuel cell and battery. The comparison between the two totally different strategies helps to find a better and effective solution to reduce the lifetime cost.

Hydrogen combustion in a noble gas atmosphere increases the combustion chamber temperature and the high specific heat ratio of the gas increases the thermal efficiency. In this study nitrogen was replaced by argon as the intake air along with pure oxygen to supply the engine. The objectives of this study are to determine the effects of different engine parameters on combustion and to analyse the emissions from hydrogen combustion in an argon-oxygen atmosphere. This research was conducted through simulations using CONVERGE 2.2.0 software and the YANMAR engine NF19SK model was used to determine the basic parameters. Changing the injector location affects the pressure and temperature in the combustion chamber. With increasing compression ratio the pressure increases more rapidly than the temperature. However combustion at high compression ratios decreases the maximum heat release rate and increases the combustion duration. Hydrogen combustion at ambient temperatures below 1200 K follows the Arrhenius equation.

Deployed at scale hydrogen could account for almost one-fifth of total final energy consumed by 2050. This would reduce annual CO2 emissions by roughly 6 gigatons compared to today’s levels and contribute roughly 20% of the abatement required to limit global warming to two degrees Celsius.

On the demand side the Hydrogen Council sees the potential for hydrogen to power about 10 to 15 million cars and 500000 trucks by 2030 with many uses in other sectors as well such as industry processes and feedstocks building heating and power power generation and storage. Overall the study predicts that the annual demand for hydrogen could increase tenfold by 2050 to almost 80 EJ in 2050 meeting 18% of total final energy demand in the 2050 two-degree scenario. At a time when global populations are expected to grow by two billion people by 2050 hydrogen technologies have the potential to create opportunities for sustainable economic growth.

“The world in the 21st century must transition to widespread low carbon energy use” said Takeshi Uchiyamada Chairman of Toyota Motor Corporation and co-chair of the Hydrogen Council. “Hydrogen is an indispensable resource to achieve this transition because it can be used to store and transport wind solar and other renewable electricity to power transportation and many other things. The Hydrogen Council has identified seven roles for hydrogen which is why we are encouraging governments and investors to give it a prominent role in their energy plans. The sooner we get the hydrogen economy going the better and we are all committed to making this a reality.”

Achieving such scale would require substantial investments; approximately US$20 to 25 billion annually for a total of about US$280 billion until 2030. Within the right regulatory framework – including long-term stable coordination and incentive policies – the report considers that attracting these investments to scale the technology is feasible. The world already invests more than US$1.7 trillion in energy each year including US$650 billion in oil and gas US$300 billion in renewable electricity and more than US$300 billion in the automotive industry.

“This study confirms the place of hydrogen as a central pillar in the energy transition and encourages us in our support of its large-scale deployment. Hydrogen will be an unavoidable enabler for the energy transition in certain sectors and geographies. The sooner we make this happen the sooner we will be able to enjoy the needed benefits of Hydrogen at the service of our economies and our societies” said Benoît Potier Chairman and CEO Air Liquide. “Solutions are technologically mature and industry players are committed. We need concerted stakeholder efforts to make this happen; leading this effort is the role of the Hydrogen Council.”

The launch of the new roadmap came during the Sustainability Innovation Forum in the presence of 18 senior members of the Hydrogen led by co-chairs Takeshi Uchiyamada Chairman of Toyota and Benoît Potier Chairman and CEO Air Liquide and accompanied by Prof. Aldo Belloni CEO of The Linde Group Woong-chul Yang Vice Chairman of Hyundai Motor Company and Anne Stevens Board Member of Anglo American. During the launch the Hydrogen Council called upon investors policymakers and businesses to join them in accelerating deployment of hydrogen solutions for the energy transition. It was also announced that Woong-chul Yang of Hyundai Motor Company will succeed Takeshi Uchiyamada of Toyota in the rotating role of the Council’s co-chair and preside the group together with Benoit Potier CEO Air Liquide in 2018. Mr Uchiyamada is planning to return as Co-chairman in 2020 coinciding with the Tokyo Olympic and Paalympic Games an important milestone for showcasing hydrogen society and mobility.

You can download the full report from the Hydrogen Council website here

This paper presents techno-economic modelling results of a nationwide hydrogen fuel supply chain (HFSC) that includes renewable hydrogen production transportation and dispensing systems for fuel cell electric buses (FCEBs) in Ireland. Hydrogen is generated by electrolysers located at each existing Irish wind farm using curtailed or available wind electricity. Additional electricity is supplied by on-site photovoltaic (PV) arrays and stored using lithium-ion batteries. At each wind farm sizing of the electrolyser PV array and battery is optimised system design to obtain the minimum levelised cost of hydrogen (LCOH). Results show the average electrolyser capacity factor is 64% after the integration of wind farm-based electrolysers with PV arrays and batteries. A location-allocation algorithm in a geographic information system (GIS) environment optimises the distributed hydrogen supply chain from each wind farm to a hypothetical hydrogen refuelling station in the nearest city. Results show that hydrogen produced transported and dispensed using this system can meet the entire current bus fuel demand for all the studied cities at a potential LCOH of 5–10 €/kg by using available wind electricity. At this LCOH the future operational cost of FCEBs in Belfast Cork and Dublin can be competitive with public buses fuelled by diesel especially under carbon taxes more reflective of the environmental impact of fossil fuels.

This paper studies the economic feasibility of installing hydrogen networks for decarbonizing heat in urban areas. The study uses the Heat Infrastructure and Technology (HIT) spatially resolved optimization model to trade-off energy supply infrastructure and end-use technology costs for the most important heat-related energy vectors: gas heat electricity and hydrogen. Two model formulations are applied to a UK urban area: one with an independent hydrogen network and one that allows for retrofitting the gas network into hydrogen. Results show that for average hydrogen price projections cost-effective pathways for heat decarbonization toward 2050 include heat networks supplied by a combination of district-level heat pumps and gas boilers in the domestic and commercial sectors and hydrogen boilers in the domestic sector. For a low hydrogen price scenario when retrofitting the gas network into hydrogen a cost-effective pathway is replacing gas by hydrogen boilers in the commercial sector and a mixture of hydrogen boilers and heat networks supplied by district-level heat pumps gas and hydrogen boilers for the domestic sector. Compared to the first modelled year CO₂ emission reductions of 88% are achieved by 2050. These results build on previous research on the role of hydrogen in cost-effective heat decarbonization pathways.

At present aero engine fault diagnosis is mainly based on the steady-state condition at the cruise phase and the gas path parameters in the entire flight process are not effectively used. At the same time high quality steady-state monitoring measurements are not always available and as a result the accuracy of diagnosis might be affected. There is a recognized need for real-time performance diagnosis of aero engines operating under transient conditions which can improve their condition-based maintenance. Recent studies have demonstrated the capability of the sequential model-based diagnostic method to predict accurately and efficiently the degradation of industrial gas turbines under steady-state conditions. Nevertheless incorporating real-time data for fault detection of aero engines that operate in dynamic conditions is a more challenging task. The primary objective of this study is to investigate the performance of the sequential diagnostic method when it is applied to aero engines that operate under transient conditions while there is a variation in the bypass ratio and the heat soakage effects are taken into consideration. This study provides a novel approach for quantifying component degradation such as fouling and erosion by using an adapted version of the sequential diagnostic method. The research presented here confirms that the proposed method could be applied to aero engine fault diagnosis under both steady-state and dynamic conditions in real-time. In addition the economic impact of engine degradation on fuel cost and payload revenue is evaluated when the engine under investigation is using hydrogen. The proposed method demonstrated promising diagnostic results where the maximum prediction errors for steady state and transient conditions are less than 0.006% and 0.016% respectively. The comparison of the proposed method to a benchmark diagnostic method revealed a 15% improvement in accuracy which can have great benefit when considering that the cost attributed to degradation can reach up to $702585 for 6000 flight cycles of a hydrogen powered aircraft fleet. This study provides an opportunity to improve our understanding of aero engine fault diagnosis in order to improve engine reliability availability and efficiency by online health monitoring.

This paper proposes a current decoupling controller for a Doubly-fed Induction Generator (DFIG) based on floating offshore wind turbine and power to gas. The proposed controller realizes Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) through integral sliding mode compensation. By using the internal model control strategy an open-loop controller is designed to ensure that the system has good dynamic performance. Furthermore using the integral Sliding Mode Control (SMC) strategy a compensator is designed to eliminate the parameter perturbation and external disturbance of the open-loop control. The parameters of the designed controller are designed through Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO). Simulation results show that the proposed control strategy has better response speed and smaller steady-state error than the traditional control strategy. This research is expected to be applied to the field of hydrogen production by floating offshore wind power.

Road transport is recognized as having a negative impact on the environment. Policy has focused on replacement of the internal combustion engine (ICE) with less polluting forms of technology including battery electric and fuel cell electric powertrains. However progress is slow and both battery and fuel cell based vehicles face considerable commercialization challenges. To understand these challenges a review of current electric battery and fuel cell electric technologies is presented. Based on this review this paper proposes a battery electric vehicle (BEV) where components are sized to take into account the majority of user requirements with the remainder catered for by a trailer-based demountable intelligent fuel cell range extender. The proposed design can extend the range by more than 50% for small BEVs and 25% for large BEVs (the extended range of vehicles over 250 miles) reducing cost and increasing efficiency for the BEV. It enables BEV manufacturers to design their vehicle battery for the most common journeys decreases charging time to provide convenience and flexibility to the drivers. Adopting a rent and drop business model reduces the demand on the raw materials bridging the gap in the amount of charging (refueling) stations and extending the lifespan for the battery pack.

Worldwide the road transport sector typically arises as one of the main sources of air pollutants due to its high energy intensity and the use of fossil fuels. Thus governments and social agents work on the development and prospective planning of decarbonisation strategies oriented towards sustainable transport. In this regard the increase in the use of alternative fuels is the recurrent approach to energy planning e.g. through the promotion of electric vehicles biofuels natural gas liquefied petroleum gas etc. However there is a lack of comprehensive information on the techno-economic performance of production pathways for alternative fuels. The acquisition of robust techno-economic data is still a challenge for energy planners modellers analysts and policy-makers when building their prospective models to support decision-making processes. Hence this article aims to fill this gap through a deep literature review including the most representative production routes for a wide range of road transportation fuels. This led to the development of datasets including investment costs operating and maintenance costs and transformation efficiencies for more than 40 production pathways. The techno-economic data presented in this work are expected to be especially useful to those energy actors interested in performing long-term studies on the transition to a sustainable transport system.